*  '    *  « 


Trl 

If 

I 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


fkole  tjf  //cjtry  King,  Sy.inry. 

AUSTRALIAN    COCKATOO. 

The  sulphur-coloured  crest  of  this  bird  a  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
horse-shoe. 


Photo  by  OttoHiar  Anschul:,  Berlin, 

MACAW. 

Next  to  the  brilliancy  of  its  colouration ,  the  most  slrik  inn  u-at  ui 
this  bird  is  its  huge  beak. 


. 
Thi»  wmi.l   •  , .  worn  only  lor  a  few  week>  in  Hi. 


This  1  me  on 

•  "l  IK  moil  extra' 


Birds  of  Other  Lands 

T^eptiles  -  Fis/zes  •  yointed  ^Animals 
and  J^ower  Forms 


EDITORS  AND  SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS 


Charles  J.  Cornish 
Ernest  Ingersoll 
F.  C.  Selous 
R.  Lydekker 


Sir  Herbert  Maxwell 
Sir  Harry  Johnston 
H.  N.  Hutchinson 
J.  W.  Gregory 


and  many  others 


THE  UNIVERSITY  SOCIETY  INC. 

New  York 


X 


• 


COPYRIGHT,  1917,  BY 
THE  UNIVERSITY  SOCIETY,  INC. 


A  portion  of  the  material  contained  in  this  volume  was  previously 
published  in  The  Standard  Library  of  Natural  History. 


MANUFACTURED    IN    THE    U.    S.    A. 


(V 
t, 


CONTENTS 

O.F   OTHER   LANDS 


PAGES 

THE  OSTRICH  AND  ITS  KINDRED       ....     ..........  1 

THE  GAME-BIRDS  AND  RAILS     ..............  13 

PIGEONS  AND  SAND-GROUSE         ..............  28 

AUKS,  GULLS,  AND  PLOVERS        ..............  31 

BUSTARDS  AND  CRANES         ...............  38 

GREBES  AND  DIVERS,  PENGUINS,  ETC  .............  41 

STORKS,  HERONS,  AND  PELICAN  TRIBE      ............  49 

SCREAMERS,  DUCKS,  GEESE,  AND  SWANS  ............  66 

BIRDS  OF  PREY  AND  OWLS  ...............  74 

NIGHT-JARS,  SWIFTS,  AND  HUMMING-BIRDS     ...........  87 

PARROTS,  CUCKOOS,  AND  PLANTAIN-EATERS     ...........  91 

ROLLERS,  KINGFISHERS,  HORNBILLS,  AND  HOOPOES  ..........  102 

BEE-EATERS,  TROGONS,  ETC  ...............  110 

TOUCANS,  WOODPECKERS,  ETC  ...............  112 

THE  PERCHING  BIRDS  ................  117 

LARKS,  TITMICE,  HONEY-EAT"ERS,  ETC  .......               .....  128 

SHRIKES,  THRUSHES,  AND  THEIR  ALLIES         ...........  135 

REPTILES   AND    AMPHIBIANS 

CROCODILES  AND  ALLIGATORS       ..............  147 

TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES     ...............  153 

LIZARDS   ....        ...............  165 

CHAMELEONS  AND  THE  TUATERA     ..........        ...  183 

SNAKES    ......  ..............  187 

FROGS  AND  TOADS          .........        .        ......  200 

NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS  .  207 


vi  CONTENTS 


FISHES 

PAGES 

LUNG-FISHES  AND  CHIMERAS 21 1 

THE   PERCH  FAMILY 214 

SCALY- FINS,  SWORD-FISHES,  ETC. 

•       •       •       •       .     zi j 

HAIR-TAILS,  GURNARDS,  ETC. 


222 

l.i  MP-SUCKERS,  FLYING- FISHES,  ETC 230 

THE  WRASSE-LIKE  FISHES 

2.5;> 

PlPE-FlSHES,   SUN-FlSHES.    /VXD  THEIR  ALLIES 

•••••.  /.)8 

THE  COD  FAMILY  01, 

••••..  ^4j 

CAVE-FISHES,  SAND-EELS,  AND  FLAT-FISHES o^ 

EELS  AND  CAT-FISHES  . 

•••••.  Z4H 

THE  CARP  FAMILY 

252 

PIKES,  ARAPAIMAS,  BEAKED  SALMON,  AND  SCOPEMDS    ....  iS4 

THE  SALMON  FAMILY 2<$7 

THE  HERRING  AND  ITS  KINDRED 

2oU 

BONY-PIKE,  STURGEON,  ETC. 

264 

SHARKS  AND  RAYS 

Zoo 


JOI\TED    AXLMALS 
IAB  AND  SCORPION  GROUPS 
INSECTS 


THE  CRAB  AND  SCORPION  GROUPS   .  --- 

272 


283 

LOWER    FORMS 

SHELL-FISH,  OR  MOLLUSCS 

Jj9 

LAMP-SHELLS 

346 

STAR-FISHES,  SEA-URCHINS,  ETC. 

••••••.       v*4o 

Moss- ANIMALS 

i->i 

WORMS    . 

JJO 

CORALS,  SEA-AM  M,, MS.    \M,  JELLY-FISH i  s  ?Af 

•  •  •  •  •  ,,l()l" 

SPONOES  AND  ANIMALCULES 

Soo 


Birds  of 
Other  Lands 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,    A.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 


CHAPTER    I 

THE    OSTRICH  AND    ITS 
KINDRED 

THE  Ostriches  are  a  very  an- 
cient group  of  birds,  and,  judg- 
ing from  what  we  know  of  their 
anatomy,  they  must  be  regarded  as 
representing  the  most  primitive  of  liv- 
ing birds.  With  the  exception  of  a 
single  group,  to  be  discussed  presently, 
all  have  lost  the  power  of  flight.  In 
some,  in  consequence,  the  wing  has  be- 
come reduced  to  a  mere  vestige.  It 
organ,  such  as  a  wing  or  a  leg  or  a  tail, 


Phot,  ky  H. 


;«,  F.,q. 


RHEA    AND    YOUNG 

Although   the   ivings  of  the   rhea    are   large,   they  fit  so 
closely  to  the  body  as  to  he  in-visible  "when  closed 


Phctt  ty  W.  P.  Dando,  F.Z.S. 

RUFOUS    TINAMOU,    BRAZIL 

The  tail-feathers  of  these  birds  are  so  small  as  to  appear  to  be  wanting 

is  a  rule  in  Nature,  we  may  remark,  that  whenever  an 
ceases  to  be  useful,  it  undergoes  forthwith  a  slow  process 
of  reduction  or  degeneration,  growing  smaller  and 
smaller  in  each  successive  generation,  till  at  last  it 
may  even  disappear  altogether.  The  loss  of  flight 
has  been  accompanied  by  a  degeneration  in  the 
quality  of  the  feathers  —  that  is  to  say,  their  service- 
ability as  aids  to  flight  has  been  entirely  lost. 

The  size  of  the  members  of  this  group  varies 
much.  The  largest  of  all  is  the  African  Ostrich; 
the  smallest,  of  the  flightless  forms,  the  New  Zealand 
Apteryx.  The  ostrich-like  birds  which  have  retained 
the  power  of  flight  are  known  as  Tinamous,  and  are 
natives  of  South  America.  All  these  are  smaller 
than  the  flightless  Apteryx. 

TINAMOUS 

The  TlNAMOUS  should  perhaps  be  regarded  as 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  Ostrich  Tribe,  since  they 
have  reached  a  higher  degree  of  development  than 
any  other  of  its  members.  They  have  also  preserved 
the  power  of  flight.  In  their  general  appearance 
they  bear  a  singular  resemblance  to  partridges, 
though  a  little  careful  observation  will  reveal  many 
points  wherein  they  differ  therefrom.  They  are  very 
confiding  and  unsuspicious  birds  —  some  persons  call 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


rhttt  ky  H.  NtH,, 

RHEA    AND    YOUNG    ONES 

Although  frequently  bred  in  captivity,  the  young  Jo 
not  teem  to  be  easily  reared 


them  stupid  on  this  account  —  and  in  the  early  morn- 
ing the  species  inhabiting  the  Argentine  pampas  will, 
observers  tell  us,  come  right  up  to  the  isolated  houses 
of  the  settlers,  so  that  the  boys  knock  them  down  with 
stones.  The  delicate  quality  of  the  flesh  has  caused 
these  birds  to  be  highly  esteemed  as  food,  and  their 
trustful  nature  renders  them  an  easy  prey,  so  much 
so  that  in  some  districts  they  have  been  almost  exter- 
minated. Large  numbers  are  caught  by  riding  round 
them  in  a  circle  and  securing  them  with  a  noose. 
Mr.  Hudson,  who  lived  many  years  in  the  pampas, 
assures  us  that  the  GREAT  TIXAMOI:  is  one  of  the 
sweetest-voiced  of  the  native  birds.  The  song  is 
composed  of  "  five  modulated  notes,  flute-like  in 
character,  and  very  expressive,  and  is  uttered  by 
many  individuals  answering  each  other  as  they  sit  far 
apart,  concealed  in  the  grass." 

The  eggs  of  the  tinamous  are  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  wonders  of  bird  life,  being  so  highly  bur- 
nished as  to  look  like  beautifully  glazed  porcelain. 
The  colour  varies  according  to  the  species,  ranging 
from  wine-red,  blue-green,  and  brown  to  black.  The 
young  are  almost  as  remarkable  as  the  eggs,  being 
clothed  with  a  peculiar  down,  of  great  complexity 
of  structure,  and  resembling  in  some  respects  the 
nestling  down  of  the  true  ostrich. 

THE   RHEA 


The  RHEA  is  a  native  of  South  America.  It  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the  Son  H 
AMERICAN  OSTRICH,  and  also  as  the  NANDU.  The  resemblance  which  it  bears  to  the  true 
ostrich  is  striking,  but  it  may  at  once  be  distinguished  therefrom  by  the  fact  that  it  has  three 
toes  and  a  feathered  head  and  neck;  furthermore,  it  is  smaller  in  size,  and  lacks  the  conspicuous 
white  wing-  and  tail-plumes.  The 
tail,  indeed,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  photographs  reproduced  is 
wanting.  The  rhea  must  be  re- 
garded as  standing  at  the  head 
of  the  flightless  members  of  the 
Ostrich  Tribe.  Its  wings,  though 
not  large  enough  to  raise  its 
heavy  body  from  the  ground,  are 
yet  of  considerable  size. 

In  Buenos  Ayres  rheas  are 
hunted  with  dogs.  If  a  breeze 
is  blowing,  the  birds  raise  one 
wing,  which  acts  as  a  sail.  This 
done,  they  can  acquire  a  speed 
which  makes  it  absolutely  im- 
possible for  either  dog  or  horse 
to  come  up  with  them.  The 
only  chance  of  ultimately  captur- 


LYING    DOWN 


ing  them  is  by  wearing  them  out 


Tht  krtail   if  ikt  larger   mcmbrri   of  ikt  Ollritk    Trihe  it  pro+'ljrj  wilt  a  large   horny 
flait,  an  -whit*  they  tupport  ikt  ktdy  when  rtinnf 


THE    OSTRICH    AND    ITS    KINDRED  3 

by  ceaseless  pursuit.  A  chase  of  this  kind  may  last  an  hour  and  a  half.  Needless  to  say,  for 
sport  of  this  kind  both  horses  and  dogs  must  be  the  best  of  their  kind  and  in  "  good 
form."  The  natives  and  Indians  hunt  them  on  horseback  with  the  "  bolas."  The  bolas,  or 
balls,  used  for  this  purpose  consist  of  two  round  stones  covered  with  leather,  and  united  by 
a  thong  of  about  8  feet  long.  One  of  these  is  held  in  the  hand  and  the  other  whirled  round 
the  head  and  suddenly  released,  when  both  go  whirling  madly  round  till  they  strike  the  rhea's 
legs,  around  which  they  instantly  twist,  and  the  victim  is  a  fast  prisoner. 

The  rhea  is  in  danger  of  disappearing  altogether  as  a  wild  bird,  owing  to  the  ruthless 
slaughter  which  is  made  upon  it  for  the  sake  of  its  feathers.  For  some  years  back, 
Mr.  Harting  tells  us,  "  the  number  of  birds  killed  has  averaged  400,000  per  annum,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  the  species  has  already  disappeared  from  nearly  half  the  territory  of  the  River 
Plate."  On  some  estates  in  Argentina  the  wild  birds  are  driven  in  and  plucked. 

Like  most  of  the  Ostrich  Tribe,  the  male  alone  performs  the  duties  of  incubation,  hatching 


Photo  br  J.  T.  fftwman] 


[Btrkhamtttd 


RHEAS   IN    A    PUBLIC   PARK 

In  spite  of  its  large  size,  the  rhea  is  not  a  conspicuous  bird  in  a  -wild  state,  the  grey  plumage  harmonising  perfectly  'with  the  surrounding  pampas 

some  twenty  eggs  at  a  time,  the  produce  of  several  different  females.  There  are  three  different 
kinds  of  rhea,  but  they  do  not  differ  much  one  from  another.  The  young  are  curiously 
striped.  The  egg  is  very  large,  of  a  cream  colour,  and  deeply  pitted. 

Darwin,  in  his  "  Voyage  of  the  Beagle,"  tells  us  that  when  he  was  "at  Bahia  Blanca,  in 
the  months  of  September  and  October,  the  eggs,  in  extraordinary  numbers,  were  found  all  over 
the  country.  They  lie  either  scattered  and  single,  in  which  case  they  are  never  hatched,  and 
are  called  by  the  Spaniards  huachos ;  or  they  are  collected  together  into  a  shallow  excavation 
which  forms  the  nest.  Out  of  the  four  nests  which  I  saw,  three  contained  twenty-two  eggs 
each,  and  the  fourth  twenty-seven.  In  one  day's  hunting  on  horseback  sixty-four  eggs  were 
found  :  forty-four  of  these  were  in  two  nests,  and  the  remaining  twenty  scattered  huachos. 
The  Gauchos  unanimously  affirm  —  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  their  statement  —  that  the 
male  bird  alone  hatches  the  eggs,  and  for  some  time  afterwards  accompanies  the  young.  The 
cock,  when  on  the  nest,  lies  very  close :  I  have  myself  almost  ridden  over  one.  It  is  asserted 
that  at  such  times  they  are  occasionally  fierce  and  even  dangerous,  and  that  they  have  been 


4  THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF   THE    WORLD 

known  to  attack  a  man  on  horseback,  trying  to  kick  and  leap  on  him.  My  informer  pointed  out 
to  me  an  old  man  whom  he  had  seen  much  terrified  by  one  chasing  him.  ...  1  understand  that 
the  male  emu  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  takes  charge  of  the  nest:  this  habit,  therefore,  is 
common  to  the  family. 

"  The  Gauchos  unanimously  affirm  that  several  females  lay  in  one  nest.  I  have  been 
positively  told  that  four  or  five  hen  birds  have  been  watched  to  go,  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
one  after  another,  to  the  same  nest.  .  .  .  Although  this  habit  at  first  appears  very  strange,  I 
think  the  cause  may  be  explained  in  a  simple  manner.  The  number  of  eggs  in  the  nest 
varies  from  twenty  to  forty,  and  even  fifty;  and  according  to  Azara  even  seventy  or  eighty. 
Now,  although  it  is  most  probable,  from  the  number  of  the  eggs  found  in  one  district  bcin^ 
so  extraordinarily  great  in  proportion  to  the  parent  birds,  and  likewise  from  the  state  of  the 
ovarium  of  the  hen,  that  she  may,  in  the  course  of  the  season,  lay  a  large  number,  yet  the 
time  required  must  be  very  long.  ...  If  the  hen  was  obliged  to  hatch  her  own  eggs  before 
the  last  was  laid,  the  first  probably  would  be  addled ;  but  if  each  laid  a  few  eggs  at  successive 
periods  in  different  nests,  and  several  hens  .  .  .  combined  together,  then  the  eggs  in  one 
collection  would  be  nearly  of  the  same  age.  If  the  number  of  eggs  in  one  of  these  nests  is, 
as  I  believe,  not  greater  on  an  average  than  the  number  laid  by  one  female  in  the  season, 
then  there  must  be  as  many  nests  as  females,  and  each  cock  bird  will  have  its  fair  share  of 
the  labour  of  incubation :  and  that  during  a  period  when  the  females  probably  could  not  sit, 
from  not  having  finished  laying.  I  have  before  mentioned  the  great  number  of  huachos,  or 
deserted  eggs ;  and  that  in  one  day's  hunting  twenty  were  found  in  this  state.  It  appears 
odd  that  so  many  should  be  wasted.  Does  it  not  arise  from  the  difficulty  of  several  females 


WHITE    RHEAS 

Tkca  art  tntj  vtritliti  of  tkt  tommtmftrm,  net  a  Jisrir.ft 


THE    OSTRICH    AND    ITS    KINDRED 


associating  together,  and  find- 
ing a  male  ready  to  under- 
take the  office  of  incubation? 
It  is  obvious  that  there  must 
at  first  be  some  degree  of 
association  between  at  least 
two  females,  otherwise  the 
eggs  would  remain  scattered 
over  the  wide  plains,  at  dis- 
tances far  too  great  to  allow 
of  the  male  collecting  them 
into  one  nest :  some  .  .  .  have 
believed  that  the  scattered 
eggs  were  deposited  for  the 
young  birds  to  feed  on.  This 
can  hardly  be  the  case  .  .  . 
because  huachos,  although 
often  found  addled  and 
putrid,  are  generally  whole." 

THE  OSTRICH 

The  OSTRICH  is  the 
giant  amongst  living  birds, 
the  full-grown  male  standing 
some  8  feet  high,  and  weighing 
about  300  Ibs.  It  is  flight- 
less, the  wings  being  smaller, 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body,  than  in  the  rhea.  But  the  energy  which  in  other  birds  is 
employed  in  sustaining  flight  in  the  ostrich  is  expended  in  running,  so  that  it  has  reached 
a  high  degree  of  speed  —  no  less,  in  fact,  than  twenty-six  miles  an  hour.  When  at  full  speed, 
it  is  generally  believed  the  ostrich  derives  no  small  help  from  the  wings,  which  are  used  .ail-Wise. 
Nor  is  this  belief  by  any  means  a  modern  one,  for  all  of  us  must  be  familiar  with  Job's 
observations  on  this  subject:  "What  time  she  lifteth  up  her  wings  on  high,  she  sc  )rneth 
the  horse  and  his  rider."  The  wings  are  never  used  in  running  at  full  speed,  but  re  of 
much  service  in  turning,  "  enabling  the  bird  to  double  abruptly,  even  when  going  at  top 
speed."  In  justice  to  the  older  observers,  however,  it  must  be  remarked  that  ostriche  do  run 
with  raised  wings,  but  only  at  the  commencement  of  the  run,  or  in  covering  a  short  distance, 
when  the  pace  may  be  considerable ;  but  if  circumstances  demand  "  full  speed  ahead,"  they  are 
held  close  to  the  body,  where  they  offer  the  least  resistance  to  speed. 

With  the  gradual  perfection  of  its  running  powers,  there  has  followed  a  gradual  change  in 
the  form  of  the  leg.  This  change  has  taken  place  by  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  toes. 
Of  the  original  five  with  which  its  ancestors  began  life  only  two  now  remain  —  the  third 
and  fourth.  The  third  is  of  great  size,  having  apparently  waxed  great  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  toes,  a  growth  which  seems  to  be  still  in  progress,  inasmuch  as  the  fourth  toe  is 
undoubtedly  dwindling.  It  is  very  small,  and  gives  unmistakable  signs  of  growing  smaller, 
since  it  has  now  become  nailless.  When  it  has  quite  disappeared,  the  ostrich,  like  the  horse, 
will  have  but  a  single  toe  on  each  foot  —  the  third.  The  dainty,  mincing  step  of  the  ostrich  is  a 
delight  to  watch,  and,  thanks  to  the  Zoological  Gardens,  this  can  be  done. 

Th-  o.;trich,  like  its  cousin  of  South  America,  the  rhea,  commonly  associates  with  herds 
of  the  larger  mammalia.  On  the  South  African  veldt  the  companions  of  the  ostrich  are  the 
zebra,  wildebeest,  and  hartebeest,  just  as  on  the  pampas  of  South  America  the  rheas  are 
found  associated  with  herds  of  deer  and  guanaco. 


Phllt  kj    W.  Ktil\  [h-uhaui,  N.  b. 

OSTRICH    STANDING    BESIDE    HER    EGGS 

In  a  'wild  state  both  cock  and  hen  take  part  in  the  preparation  of  the  nett 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  egg  of  the  ostrich  weighs  about  3  Ibs.,  and  is  of  delicious  flavour.  The  empty  shell, 
it  has  been  found  by  experiment,  is  large  enough  to  hold  the  contents  of  eighteen  eggs  of 
the  common  domesticated  fowl.  It  takes  about  forty  minutes  to  boil  an  ostrich  egg  hare.  About 
fifteen  eggs  represent  the  clutch.  The  nest  is  a  mere  depression  in  the  sand.  The  hen  sits 
by  day,  and  her  mate  by  night;  but  the  eggs  are  never  left,  as  is  sometimes  stated,  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  so  as  to  lessen  the  duties  of  the  parent.  Such  a  course  would  infallibly  destroy 
the  eggs,  for  the  sun's  rays,  especially  at  noon,  are  very  powerful. 

The  male  and  female  ostrich  differ  much  in  coloration.  In  the  former  the  trunk  is  clotlu-cl 
in  a  vestment  of  richest  black,  whilst  the  quills  of  the  wings  and  tail-feathers  are  of  pure  white : 
they  form  the  much-prized  ostrich  plumes.  The  female  is  much  less  splendid,  being  clothed  in 
sober  grey.  But  these  colours  are  not  merely  ornamental ;  they  render  the  male  by  night  and 
the  female  by  day  invisible,  owing  to  the  perfect  harmony  they  make  with  their  surroundings, 
thus  affording  an  interesting  illustration  of  protective  coloration. 

"  All  ostriches,"  says  Mr.  Cronwright  Schreiner,  "  adults  as  well  as  chicks,  have  a  strange 
habit  known  as  '  waltzing.'  When  chicks  are  let  out  from  a  kraal  in  the  early  morning,  they 
will  often  start  away  at  a  great  pace.  After  running  for  a  few  hundred  yards  they  will  all  stop, 

and,  with  wings  raised,  spin  round 
rapidly  for  some  time,  often  till  quite 
giddy,  when  a  broken  leg  occasionally 
occurs.  Adult  birds,  when  running 
in  large  camps,  will  often,  if  ;he 
veldt  is  good,  do  the  same,  especially 
if  startled  in  the  fresh  of  the  <• 
morning.  A  troop  of  birds  \\alt/.in  ;, 
in  full  plumage,  is  a  remarkably 
pretty  sight.  Vicious  cocks  '  roll ' 
when  challenging  to  fight,  also  when 
wooing  the  lien.  The  cock  will 
suddenly  bump  down  on  to  his  '  km 
.  .  .  open  his  wings,  making  a  straight 
line  across  his  breast,  and  then  swing 
them  alternately  backwards  and 
forwards  ...  as  if  on  a  pivot,  each 
wing,  as  it  comes  forward,  being 
raised,  while  that  going  backward  is 
depressed.  The  neck  is  lowered  until  the  head  is  on  a  level  with  the  back,  and  the  head  and 
neck  swing  from  side  to  side  with  the  wings,  the  back  of  the  head  striking  with  a  loud 
click  against  the  ribs,  first  on  the  one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  The  click  is  produced 
by  the  skin  of  the  neck,  which  then  bulges  loosely  just  under  the  beak  and  for  some  distance 
downwards.  While  '  rolling,'  every  feather  over  the  whole  body  is  on  end.  and  the  plumes  are 
open,  like  a  large  white  fan.  At  such  a  time  the  bird  sees  very  imperfectly,  if  at  all ;  in  fact, 
he  seems  so  preoccupied  that,  if  pursued,  one  may  often  approach  unnoticed.  I  have  \\alked  up 
to  a 'rolling'  cock  and  seized  him  by  the  neck,  much  to  his  surprise.  Just  before  rolling,  a 
cock,  especially  if  courting  the  hen,  will  often  run  slowly  and  daintily  on  the  points  of  his 
toes,  with  neck  slightly  inflated,  upright  and  rigid,  the  tail  half  drooped,  and  all  his  body- 
feathers  fluffed  up ;  the  wings  raised  and  expanded,  the  inside  edge-,  touching  the  sides  of  the 
neck  for  nearly  the  whole  of  its  length,  and  the  plumes  showing  separately,  like  an  open  tan 
...  on  each  side  of  his  head.  In  no  other  attitude  is  the  splendid  beauty  of  his  plumage 
displayed  to  such  advantage." 

The  males  are  very  fierce  while  guarding  their  eggs  or  fighting  for  mates,  and  kick  with 
extraordinary  violence  with  their  powerful  legs.  As  an  example  of  their  fierceness  when  aroused, 
Mr.  Crunwright  Schreiner,  who  knows  much  of  these  birds,  relates  a  story,  told  him  by  a 


fh.1.  h  If.  K.id]  [Ifl.liiw,  N.B. 

OSTRICHES    TEN    DAYS    OLD 

Tkl  dnan-fcatkcrs  of  young  ostrichei  are  fuile  different  from  tkoa  if  otker  birjs, 
the  tifl  of  cock  being  produced  into  a  korny  ribbon 


Photo  by   Mr.  C/o 


[Cape  'letun 


AN    OSTRICH    FAMILY 
Tie  sock  bird  it  in  -tnusuallv  fine  tfiecimcn,  measuring  exactly  S  feet  from  head  la  feat 

7 


8 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


railway-guard,  of  an  old  male  who  charged  a  goods-train  coming  at  full  speed  down  a  steep 
gradient.  The  bird,  as  soon  as  he  caught  sight  of  the  train,  at  once  got  on  the  line,  "  and 
advanced  fearlessly  to  fight  the  monster.  As  the  screeching  engine  approached,  he  rushed 
at  it  from  straight  in  front,  hissing  angrily,  and  kicked.  He  was  cut  to  pieces  the  next 
moment." 

The  Bedouin  tribes  hunt  the  ostrich  on  dromedaries,  so  also  do  the  natives  of  Somaliland, 
and  when  near  enough  shoot  it  with  poisoned  arrows.  In  the  Sahara,  Canon  Tristram  tells  us. 
it  is  ridden  down  on  horseback,  a  method  of  capture  which  the  Sahara  sportsman  regards  as 
the  greatest  feat  of  hunting. 

'"The  Bushmen,"  says  Mr.  Harting,  "like  the  Somalis,  kill  the  ostrich  with  poisoned 
arrows,  or  catch  it  very  cleverly  in  pit-falls  or  with  the  lasso,  and  the  Sukurieh  and 
Hadendawah  tribes  likewise  use  the  lasso,  with  which  the  bird,  when  once  fairly  caught,  is 
strangled.  ...  A  favourite  plan  is  to  wait  for  the  birds  in  a  place  of  concealment,  as  near  as 


A    GROUP   OF    COCK.    OSTRICHES 

tfete  tkt  contfieuoui  tail  in  tktit  tirji  j  it  ii  "wanting  in  alter  mtmbert  of  tkt  Ostric/i  Trite 

possible  to  the  pools  to  which  they  come  for  water,  and  then,  with  a  gun  loaded  \\  ith  swan- 
shot,  to  fire  at  their  necks  as  they  stoop  to  drink,  when  perhaps  half  a  dozen  are  laid  low 
at  once.  .  .  .  Another  plan  to  which  the  Bushman  often  resorts  is  simpler  still.  Having 
found  an  ostrich's  nest,  he  removes  all  the  eggs,  and,  ensconcing  himself  in  the  nest,  quietly 
awaits  the  return  of  the  bird,  which  he  shoots  with  a  poisoned  arrow  before  it  has  time  t<> 
recover  from  its  surprise  at  finding  him  there  instead  of  the  eggs.  ...  In  Senaar  the  .\bu-kof 
bring  it  down  by  throwing  a  curved  flat  stick  from  2.]  to  3  feet  long,  not  unlike-  the  Australian 
boomerang,  and  made  of  tough  acacia-wood  or  hard  zizyphus." 

Mr.  Arthur  Glynn,  of  Leydenburg,  give-  a  ;.;ra]>hir  di-scription  of  an  ostrich  hunt,  his  quarry 
being  a  troop  of  twenty  birds  — "  on  sighting  which,"  he  tells  us,  "  \\e  immediately  ga\  e  elia-r. 
discovering  directly  afterwards  that  a  single  hull  wildebeeste  was  among  them.  After  a  stilt' 
gallop,"  he  says,  "of  half  a  mile,  \ve  got  within  seventy  yards  of  the  troop;  90  reining  in,  we 
both  dismounted  and  fired,  bringing  down  one  ostrieh  and  the  wildebeeste  bull.  .  .  .  \Ve  quickly 
mounted  and  continued  the  pursuit,  the  ostriches  never  running  for  any  distance  in  a  direct 


THE    OSTRICH     AND     ITS     KINDRED 


course,  but  always  turning  and 
twisting,  which  made  it  difficult  for 
ius  to  keep  them  in  sight.  .  .  .  We 
went  sailing  on,  neck  and  neck, 
regardless  of  holes  or  anything  else, 
only  thinking  of  the  grandly 
plumaged  birds  in  front  of  us,  our 
horses  straining  every  nerve  to  over- 
take them,  as  only  old  stagers  know 
how  to  run  when  in  pursuit  of  game. 
We  had  now  approached  within  fifty 
yards,  and,  jumping  down,  we  fired 
at  two  cock  birds  running  separately 
from  the  troop,  bringing  them  both 
•down.  Hastily  mounting,  we  con- 
tinued on  after  the  retreating 
troop ;  but  at  this  juncture  my 
friend's  horse  trod  in  a  hole,  sending 
his  rider  over  his  head,  thereby 
completely  putting  him  out  of  the 
run.  I  now  continued  the  chase  by 
myself.  For  a  mile  the  ostriches 
gained  on  me,  as  they  continued  to 
run  in  a  straight  line,  thereby  not 
enabling  me  to  cut  off  any  point, 
but  obliging  me  to  keep  in  their 
rear  all  the  time.  ...  I  got  off 
twice,  and  fired  several  fruitless 
shots,  and  then  continued  the  chase 
for  certainly  two  miles  without  dis- 
mounting once.  ...  I  now  got 
within  a  hundred  yards,  and  jumped 
down.  .  .  .  The  first  shot  I  fired  brought  down  a  fine  cock  bird,  but  the  second  struck  the 
ground  over  the  others,  turning  them  to  the  right  along  a  low  ridge.  They  appeared 
very  much  exhausted,  and  ran  with  their  wings  spread  out.  ...  I  saw  that  they  were  coming 
direct  for  me,  and  waited  until  they  were  close.  .  .  .  When  the  ostriches  approached  within 
fifteen  yards,  I  selected  the  best-looking  bird,  and  put  a  bullet  through  him.  He  ran  on  for 
about  twenty  yards  and  fell  dead." 

CASSOWARIES  AND  EMEUS 

With  the  Cassowaries  and  Emeus  we  have  come  as  near  as  we  can  get  at  the  present  day 
to  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  type  from  which  the  Ostrich  Tribe  have  sprung.  But 
both  these  forms  are  to  be  regarded  as  having  passed  the  prime  of  their  development,  for, 
like  their  allies  which  we  have  already  considered,  they  have  lost  the  power  of  flight.  Both 
emeu  and  cassowary  possess,  when  adult,  one  character  shared  by  no  other  living  adult  bird ; 
they  have  what  may  be  called  double  feathers,  each  feather  possessing  two  shafts  of  equal 
length.  They  appear  to  follow  a  custom  of  their  own  in  the  matter  of  the  coloration  of  their 
eggs,  since  these  are  never  white,  like  those  of  the  rhea  or  ostrich,  but  green,  with  a  very  rough 
surface.  The  young,  like  those  of  the  rhea,  are  striped  with  alternate  black  and  white  stripes. 
The  emeu  is  found  only  on  the  continent  of  Australia ;  the  cassowary  occurs  both  in  Australia 
and  on  the  neighbouring  islands  of  New  Guinea,  Ceram,  and  Aru. 

The  lot  of  the  CASSOWARY  appears  to  have  been  cast  in  pleasant  places,  making  it  possible 


Photo  by  II'.  P.  Dando,  i-'.Z.S.] 

SCLATER'S     CASSOWARY 

This  bird  is  not  yet  full  gro*wn,  the  horny  casque  on  the  top  of  the  head 
being  much  larger  in  the  adult 


10 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


:*  h  D.  l.t  Stuff]  [Mttlwtrnt 

NEST    AND    EGGS    OF    EMEU 

Tht  fttt  of  the  old  htrdt  which  vial  Handing   near,  can  he  teen 
behind  the  eggs 


to  indulge  in  the  luxury  of  personal  decoration  — 
a  decoration,  moreover,  shared  equally  by  the 
males  and  females,  both  sexes  having  the  head 
and  neck  most  brilliantly  coloured.  In  some 
species  all  the  hues  of  the  rainbow  arc  vividly 
reflected.  To  show  these  colours,  the  feathery 
covering,  still  worn  by  their  relatives  on  the 
distant  continents  of  Africa  and  America,  has  been 
cast  off  and  the  skin  left  bare.  To  these  gorgeous 
hues  they  have  added  yet  other  features,  for  the 
head  is  surmounted  in  many  species  by  a  huge 
casque,  or  helmet;  whilst  from  the  neck  depend 
curious  fleshy  lobes,  or  wattles,  coloured  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rest  of  the  bare,  coloured  skin  of 
this  region.  Then,  too,  they  have  effected  quite 
a  novel  transformation  in  the  quills  of  the  wing, 
for  these  project  on  either  side  of  the  body  in  .1 
series  of  shining  black  spines.  Nor  is  this  all,  for  over  and  above  the  energy  which  they 
have  to  spare  for  personal  decoration  is  a  very  large  reserve  to  be  expended  in  fighting. 
The  males  are  very  pugnacious,  and  to  give  point  to  this  pugnacity  they  wear  a  \ 
formidable  weapon  on  the  inner  toe  in  the  shape  of  a  huge  nail,  which  can  inflict  a  really 
dangerous  wound.  It  is  used  in  kicking,  the  foot  being  brought  forwards  and  downwards  with 
incredible  speed  and  great  force.  When  wounded,  these  powerful  birds  arc  very  dangerous 
to  approach.  "  On  more  than  one  occasion  a  wounded  bird  has  caused  a  naturalist  to  take 
to  a  tree.  The  sharp  nail  of  the  inner  toe  is  a  most  dangerous  weapon,  quite  equal  to  the 
claw  of  a  large  kangaroo,  and  capable  of  doing  quite  as  much  execution." 

Although  forest-haunting  birds  —  wherein  they  differ  from  their  allies,  which  are  plain- 
dwellers  —  the  cassowaries  are  adepts  at  swimming.  There  is  a  danger  that  these  beautiful  and 
interesting  birds  will  slowly  be  exterminated  by  greedy  and  thoughtless  settlers.  The  Australian 
cassowary  is  already  decreasing  sadly,  being  persecuted  for  the  sake  of  its  skin,  which  is  used 
for  rugs  and  doormats. 

The  E.MEL',  though  a  sort  of  cousin  of  the  cassowary,  boasts  none  of  its  splendour;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  a  dull,  dowdy-looking  bird.  In  size,  however,  it  is  much  larger  than  the 
cassowary.  The  wings,  which  are  exceedingly  small,  have  numerous  tiny  quill-feathers  —  not  long, 
hard  spines,  as  in  the  cassowary.  When  in  captivity,  it  exhibits  great  curiosity;  furthermore, 
it  is  swift  to  realise  symptoms  of  fear 
in  the  faces  of  any  visitor  whom  it 
may  have  under  inspection.  Occasion- 
ally fear  turns  into  flight,  and  then, 
thoroughly  entering  into  the  joke,  the 
emeu  pursues  at  top  speed.  Needless 
to  say,  hunting  of  this  kind  can  only  be 
done  in  fairly  large  paddocks  or  parks ; 
but  emeus  are  frequently  so  kept. 

A  very  remarkable  and  quite 
unique  structure  in  the  emeu  is  a 
curious  bag  or  pouch,  formed  by  a 
sort  of  out-pocketing  of  the  inner 
lining  of  the  windpipe.  Kmerging  flUHtf  u.  L.  Snlf] 

through   a    long  slit  caused    by  tin  YOUNG    EMEUS    FIVE    DAYS   OLD 

incompleteness  of  some  of  the  rings        ^  ^  >jf  ^  rf  <lu  Ml  ^  ^ 
near  the  middle  of  the  windpipe,  the  an  rapidly  l<,,i 


CASSOWARY. 
The  female  Cassowary  is  larger  than  her  mate,  and  her  colouring  is  of  equal  brilliancy. 


THE    OSTRICH    AND    ITS    KINDRED 


1 1 


pouch  comes  tc  lie  between  this  tube 
and  the  skin.  Strangely  enough,  it 
is  found  only  in  the  female,  and  is 
used  by  her  chiefly  during  the 
breeding-season,  when  she  utters  a 
peculiarly  loud  booming  note,  which, 
it  is  supposed,  is  caused  by  the 
manipulation  of  the  air  in  the  pouch. 
When  moved  by  any  gentle  excite- 
ment or  pleasure,  especially  on  damp 
evenings  or  in  the  dead  of  night,  she 
also  becomes  musical,  giving  forth  a 
note  which  has  been  likened  to  a 
gong  or  muffled  drum.  The  male, 
which  is  smaller,  fleeter  of  foot,  and 
more  docile  and  inquisitive,  is  mute, 
or  at  most  gives  forth  a  suppressed 
hiss  when  angry,  or  a  kind  of  grunt 
when  distressed. 


Photo  bjr  Scholastic  PJloto.  Co.] 

YOUNG    EMEUS 


[Par ton' 'j  Grtin 


After  a  few  weeks  the  black  and  -white  strifes  become  much  less  conspicuous 


At  one  time  the  emeu  roamed  over  the  whole  of  the  mainland  of  Australia;  but  now,  alas! 
it  is  almost  exterminated,  being  found  only  far  inland  and  in  steadily  diminishing  numbers. 
Swift  of  foot  and  of  great  powers  of  endurance,  the  emeu  has  afforded  in  the  past  much  "  sport " 
to  the  hunting-man,  who  followed  the  dogs,  doubtless  making  comparisons  the  while  between 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^  his  two-legged  prey  and  his  four-footed 

friend  Reynard.  The  hunt  does  not  end 
till  the  bird  is  thoroughly  exhausted, 
when  it  must  be  seized  at  once  by  the 
neck,  in  order  to  prevent  it  kicking,  for 
the  legs  are  so  powerful  that  a  blow 
from  the  foot  is  dangerous. 

Incubation  is  apparently  performed 
by  the  male,  which  sits  from  fifty-four 
to  sixty-four  days.  Practically  no  nest 
is  made,  only  a  shallow  hollow  being 
scraped  in  the  sand.  The  eggs,  from 
seven  to  thirteen  in  number,  are  of 
a  dark  bottle-green  colour,  sometimes 
lighter,  and  have  the  surfaces  curiously 
roughened.  The  male  is  smaller  than 
the  female,  a  fact  which  has  led  to 
some  confusion,  the  larger  female  having 
at  one  time  been  regarded  as  the  male. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  emeus  not 
only  lack  the  brilliant  colour  of  the  casso- 
waries, but  also  the  helmet,  or  casque. 
The  late  Mr.  Gould's  remarks  on 
the  edibility  of  the  emeu  are  inter- 
esting. He  says :  "  Its  flesh  has  been 
compared  to  coarsebeef,  which  it  resem- 
bles, according  to  Mr.  Cunningham, 
both  in  appearance  and  taste,  and  is 
s^oodandsweeteating;  nothing. indeed. 


fhoto  k,  J    T.  N. 


It,',:. 


EMEU 


The  feathers  of  the  neck  of  the  emeu  are  much  longer  than  in  the  rhea  ;  hence  the 
neck  seems  shorter 


12          THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


flutt  *»  Rtkt't  D.  Ctntn,  Eif.]  [fhlladilfhla 

MANTELL'S    KIWI,    NEW   ZEALAND,    NORTH    ISLAND 

ITk*  fading,  ike  htoi  mates  a  miffing  sound,  distinctly  audible  at  some  distance 


can  be  more  delicate  than  the  flesh 
of  the  young  ones.  There  is  little 
fit  for  culinary  use  upon  any  part 
of  the  emu,  except  the  hind- 
quarters, which  are  of  such  dimen- 
sions that  the  shouldering  of  the 
two  hind  legs  homeward  for  a  mile 
distance  once  proved  to  me  as  tire- 
some a  task  as  I  ever  recollect  to 
have  encountered  in  the  colon)-.  I 
may  remark  that  its  flesh  proved 
of  the  greatest  service  to  Dr.  Leich- 
ardt  and  his  intrepid  companions 
during  their  overland  route  from 
Moreton  Bay  to  Port  Essington,  in 
the  course  of  which,  but  more  par- 
ticularly between  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  Port  Kssin^- 
ton,  the  sight  and  capture  of  the 
emu  was  almost  a  daily  occurrence ; 
SO  abundant,  in  fact,  was  it,  that 
he  states  that  he  saw  in  the  short 


space  of  eight  miles  at  least  a  hundred,  in  flocks  of  three,  five,  ten,  and  even  more  at 
a  time.  On  the  continent  of  Australia  the  emu  was  formerly  abundant  about  Botany  Bay 
and  Port  Jackson  Harbour,  but  is  now  only  to  be  seen  in  the  plains  of  the  interior,  over 
whose  solitudes  it  roams  in  great  numbers,  and  where  it  breeds,  depending  on  the  strength 
and  swiftness  of  its  legs  to  avoid  the  pursuit  of  the  stockmen  and  their  dogs.  Farther  and 
farther  back,  however,  will  it  be  driven,  until  it  be  extirpated,  unless  some  law  be  instituted  to 
check  its  wanton  destruction." 

In  a  wild  state  emeus  take  readily  to  the  water,  and  have  on  more  than  one  occasion 
been  seen  swimming  across  a  wide  river.  The  South  American  rhea  is  also  known  to  be  a 
good  swimmer. 

The  COMMON  EMEU  is  restricted  to  Eastern  Australia.  The  opposite  side  of  this  ^n -at 
continent  is  inhabited  by  another  and  very  distinct  species,  known  as  the  Si'mri.n  ].MI:I  . 

THE  APTEKVX 

To  see  the  APTERVX  at  home,  we  should 
have  to  travel  to  far  New  Zealand,  and  to 
hunt  with  infinite  patience  when  we  got  there. 
Apteryx-hunting,  it  has  been  found,  to  be 
successful,  must  be  done  by  the  help  of  dogs. 
Sir  Walter  Buller  has  written  some  very  spirited 
accounts  of  such  hunts.  Europeans,  indeed, 
have  been  singularly  successful  in  this  hunting, 
whereby  they  have  done  much  to  enhance  the 
value  of  this  bird  by  hastening  its  fast  ap- 
proaching and  inevitable  extermination. 

The  natives  call  this  bird  the  KIWI,  from 
its  call-note,  "  ki-i-wi."  These  cries  are  uttered 
during  the  early  hours  of  the  night,  ceasing 
after  midnight.  They  appear  to  have  great 
penetrating  power. 


Halt  h    R,tl,l   D.    (.jr,sn 

OWEN'S    KIWI, 


M  \V     /I  ALAND,    SOUTH 
ISLAND 

THt  it  thr  smjHnt  of  the  ki'.uil 


CHAPTER    II 

THE    GAME-BIRDS  AND   RAILS 

IT  is  not  easy  in  a  few  words  exactly  to  define  a  "  game-bird."     Anatomical  details  aside, 
the   most  characteristic   features  are   the   small   head   and   moderately   long  neck,   and   a 
compact  body,  in  which  the  wings,  when  folded,  are  almost  entirely  concealed.     The  hind 
toe  is  always  present,  and  the  claws  are  adapted  for  scratching  purposes  —  that  is  to  say,  for 
scratching  up    the  surface  of  the  ground    in  the  search   for  seeds  as  food.     The  wings   are 
hollowed    so   as    to    fit  close    to   the    body,  and    the    flight,  which    is   noisy  and    never   long- 
sustained,  is  nevertheless  often  exceedingly  rapid.     The  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down, 
and  able  to  run  in  a  few  hours  after  birth. 


fhata  bj  C.   Rlitf] 


,,  N.B. 


RED    GROUSE 

This  is  one  of  the  species  in  which  the  toes  are  feathered 

GROUSE  AND   PTARMIGAN 

The  birds  of  this  group  are  distinguished  by  the  feathery  covering  which  clothes  the  feet. 
In  some  grouse,  however,  the  toes  are  bare.  This  causes  them  to  resemble  the  Pheasant  group, 
from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  toes  are  fringed  with  horny  processes 
forming  a  sort  of  comb. 

2  13 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


H'.  F.  I'lft'"}  ILttfhttn  Buxxs 

PTARMIGAN 

In  winter  theie  birds  don  a  tnoiv-ivhite  livery 


The  RED  GROUSE  is  the  only  game-bird  which 
is  not  found  outside  the  British  Islands.  It  is  the 
bird  which  perhaps  heads  the  list  in  the  estimation 
of  British  sportsmen,  who  travel  north  in  hundreds 
every  year  for  the  pleasure  of  the  sport  it  affords. 
It  is  furthermore  remarkable  for  the  wonderful  variety 
of  the  seasonal  plumages.  Both  sexes  change  their 
dress  twice  during  the  year  —  the  female  in  spring  and 
summer,  and  the  male  in  autumn  and  winter.  Its 
Continental  relative,  the  RYPER,  has  no  less  than 
three  changes  —  spring,  summer,  and  winter.  For  the 
last  season  a  white  dress  is  adopted,  to  correspond  with 
its  snowy  surroundings.  The  winters  in  the  British 
Islands 
are  neither 
long 
enough 
nor  severe 
enough 
to  render 
such 
change 


necessary 

with  the  red  grouse,  which  is  sufficiently  protected  by 
its  ordinary  dress. 

The  largest  and  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of 
all  the  European  game-birds  are  the  CAPERCALLIKS, 

^  or  CAPER- 
CAILZIES. 
T  h  e 
British 
s-p  e  c  i  e  s 
is  also 
known  as 
the  Co<  K- 


flxn  ky  1C.  F.  filial^  ILrlthiin  Buxxt'ii 

CAPERCALLIE 

Tkil  ivas  once  a  common  Britiik  bird.       The  prejent  breed* 

ti'at  introduced  tome  \ears  ago,  the  native  birdi 

having  been  exterminated 


flor,  If  Uf.  r.  fin*!]  [LMfkrrn 

COMMON    PARTRIDGE 

Liu  li  tkt  commoner  and  more  eiteemed  tf  tkl  two  Iftciei 
tf  Bririik  partridgei 


O  F-T  H  E- 
WOOD.  He 
is  a  hand- 
some black  bird,  nearly  as  big  as  a  turkey,  weighing 
from  9  to  1 7  Ibs. 

In  the  spring  the  capercallie,  like  tin-  blackcock, 
indulges  in  a  remarkable  "  love-song,"  or  "  pl.iy." 
as  it  is  called.  With  outstretched  neck,  tail  expanded 
like  a  fan,  drooping  wings,  and  milled  feathers,  lie 
commences  his  call,  "  pi-ller,  ])eller,  pcllcr,"  increasing 
in  tapidity  ever\-  moment,  till  he  works  himself  up 
int<>  a  perfect  fren/v.  At  this  time  he  i-~  pntectly 
unconscious  of  all  around  him,  and  poachers,  knowing 
this,  sometimes  take  advantage  to  creep  up  and 
shoot  him.  On  hearing  the  cock,  the  hens  assemble 
from  all  parts  of  the  forest.  The  male  then  descends- 
from  the  tree  to  the  ground,  when  "  he  and  his 


THE     GAME-BIRDS     AND     RAILS 


female  friends  join  company"  and  march  away.  The  caper- 
callie  is  jealous  of  trespassers  on  his  domain,  and  instances 
are  on  record  where  people  have  been  attacked  when  so 
infringing. 

Like  the  capercallie,  the  BLACKCOCK  must  be  sought  in 
the  woods,  whence  he  sallies  forth  to  the  moors  and  stubble- 
fields  to  feed.  The  GREY-HEN,  as  the  female  of  this  species 
is  called,  lays  from  six  to  ten  eggs,  of  a  buff  colour,  spotted 
with  rich  brown :  both  in  number  and  colour  they  resemble 
those  of  the  capercallie. 

PARTRIDGES,  QUAILS,  AND  PHEASANTS. 

The  birds  which  come  under  this  head  are  so  many 
in  number  they  may  be  reckoned  by  the  hundred,  and 
include  several  forms  of  exquisite  beauty.  The  legs  of 
many  are  armed  with  formidable  spurs,  with  which  the 
males,  who  are  exceedingly  pugnacious,  fight  furiously  with 
their  rivals  for  the  possession  of  some  coveted  female. 

Of  the  more  conspicuous  forms  we  may  mention  the 
RED-LEGGED  and  COMMON  PARTRIDGES.  In  England  the 
former  is  known  more  generally  as  the  FRENCH  PARTRIDGE 
—why,  it  is  hard  to  say.  It  is  a  native  of  South-eastern 
Europe,  whence  it  was  introduced  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  a  handsome  bird,  but  not  in  high 
favour  with  sportsmen,  since  it  prefers  to  escape  by  run- 
ning rather  than  by  flight. 


fhai  tf  IT.  P.  Dando,  F.Z.S. 

GOLDEN    PHEASANT 

This  bird  is  moulting.     In  full  dress  the  cape  seen 
in  the  upper  figure  is  golden  -with  blue-black  ban 


P>M>  by  C. 


GOLDEN    PHEASANT 

This  bird  is  often  kept  in  aviaries,  on  account  of  its  magnificent  livery 


i,  K.B. 


«w.  tf  If.  f.  Dt*J»,  F.Z.S. 

SILVER    PHEASANT 

A  alver  fkiautnt  it  embroidered  at  a  badge  on  mandarini'  Jreiui 


Hal,  *»  C.  Kilif]  [H-,,htw,  N.B. 

ENGLISH    PHEASANTS 
Tkea  birdi  are  of  the  ring-necked  variety 


Flau  if  Stlulmilii  Fntli.  C«.]  [fmm'l  Grim 

REEVES'S    PHEASANT 

TUt  it  a  native  of  Ncnk  and  West  CUna,  and  kat  keen  intro- 
duced into  Britain 


FHu,  kt  «'    f.  Dt*d*.  r   '/.  < 

.\\1II1  KSfS    PHEASANT 

Ttil  HrJ  ii  moulting  :  in  full  dreii  tke  caft  ii  vihitt  and  iki  •  -n: 
Hood-red 


Phtt*  by  Sch»laitit  Phitt.  C«.]  [Parttn'i  Grttn 

GOLDEN    PHEASAN  1 

Tke  female  it  lobtrly  clad,  and  kai  no  creit  or  cafe 


Fh,i»  h  H\  P.  I) ami*,  f.. 

I'l    \i  (ii   K    IM1K  ASANT 

Tktu  fkeatanti    take    tkr\r    njme  from    t^     t\e-ikt    ifotl  on  til 
v/ingi 


16 


THE    GAME-BIRDS    AND    RAILS 


The  COMMON  PARTRIDGE  is  the  more 
abundant  of  the  two  species.  Though  more 
sober  in  coloration,  it  is  still  a  beautiful  bird. 
The  "  horse-shoe  "  mark,  borne  on  the  breast, 
so  characteristic  of  this  bird,  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  males,  as  is  generally  believed. 
"  Yielding,"  says  Professor  Newton,  "  perhaps 
in  economic  importance  to  the  red  grouse, 
what  may  be  called  the  social  influence  of 
the  partridge  is  greater  than  that  excited  by 
any  other  wild  bird." 

This  bird  displays  great  courage  and 
affection  in  defence  of  its  eggs  or  young. 
A  story  illustrating  this  is  told  of  a  gentle- 
man, who,  "  whilst  superintending  his  plough- 
men, saw  a  partridge  glide  off  her  nest,  so 
near  the  foot  of  one  of  his  plough-horses 
that  he  thought  the  eggs  must  be  crushed ; 
this,  however,  was  not  the  case.  .  .  .  He 
saw  the  old  bird  return  to  her  nest  the 
instant  he  left  the  spot.  It  was  evident 
that  the  next  round  of  the  plough  must 
bury  the  eggs  and  nest  in  the  furrow.  His 
surprise  was  great  when,  returning  with  the 
plough,  he  came  to  the  spot  and  saw  the 
nest  indeed,  but  the  eggs  and  bird  were  gone. 


• 


',  Dando,  F.Z.  S. 

HIMALAYAN 


MONAL 


In  tome  parti  of  India  this  bird  has  been  exterminated,  owing  to  the 
demands  of  the  plume-market 


F)uu  bf  W.  P.  Dandv,  F.Z.S, 

HIMALAYAN    MONAL 

The  female  of  the  monal  is  quite  soberly  clad 


An  idea  struck  him  that  she  had  removed  her 
eggs ;  and  he  found  her,  before  he  left  the  field,  sit- 
ting under  the  hedge  upon  twenty-one  eggs.  .  .  . 
The  round  of  ploughing  had  occupied  about  twenty 
minutes,  in  which  time  she,  probably  aided  by  the 
cock  bird,  had  removed  the  twenty-one  eggs  to  a 
distance  of  about  forty  yards." 

The  RED-LEGGED  PARTRIDGES,  their  allies  the 
FRANCOLlNS.and  the  GREY  PARTRIDGES  areall  ground- 
birds;  the  TREE-PARTRIDGES,  as  the  name  implies,  are 
not,  or  at  least  less  completely  so  —  hence  their 
mention  here.  They  are  natives  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
countries,  and  the  islands  of  Java,  Borneo,  and  Formosa. 

The  QUAIL  is  a  little-known  British  bird,  very  like 
a  small  partridge  in  appearance.  Enormous  numbers, 
Professor  Newton  tells  us,  "  are  netted  on  the  Conti- 
nent, especially  in  the  spring  migration.  The  captives 
are  exposed  in  the  poulterers'  shops,  confined  in  long, 
cloth-covered  cages,  with  a  feeding-trough  in  front." 
The  bulk  "  of  these  are  males,  which  are  the  first  to 
arrive,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  circumstance  by 
the  bird-catchers,  who  decoy  hundreds  into  their  nets 
by  imitating  the  call-note  of  the  female.  It  has  been 
stated  that  in  the  small  island  of  Capri,  in  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  160,000  have  been  netted  in  a  single 
season,  and  even  larger  numbers  are  on  record."  An 
idea  of  the  vast  numbers  which  travel  together  in 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


W.r.  *,  C.  R.iJ] 


[ICiihtw,  N.B. 


RED    COCHINS 


Tke  wngi  in  the  typical  Cockint  are  to  tkort  as  to  be  uulett 


migration  may  be  gathered  from  Canon  Tris- 
tram's statement  that  in  Algeria,  in  April,  he 
found  the  ground  covered  with  quails  for  an 
extent  of  many  acres  at  daybreak,  where  on  ihe 
preceding  afternoon  not  one  was  to  be  sem. 
These  are  the  birds  which  were  so  eagerly  sei/ed 
by  the  Israelites  as  a  welcome  change  in  the  diet 
which  had  become  so  monotonous  in  the  days 
of  their  early  wanderings.  The  story,  so  vividly 
told  in  the  Book  of  Exodus,  is,  of  course, 
familiar  to  all. 

The  quail  lays  from  nine  to  fifteen  eggs 
in  a  feeble  apology  for  a  nest.  It  is  said  that 
the  curious  metallic  note  "clic-lic-lic "  gave 
origin  to  the  Spanish  Castanet,  for  these  birds 
are  much  esteemed  in  Spain,  being  kept  in 
cages  for  the  pleasure  their  notes  afford. 

There  are  five  or  six  other  species  of  quail 
closely  related  to  the  above.  The  British  bird 
enjoys  an  enormous  range,  being  found  almost 
everywhere  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The 

so-called  AMERICAN  QUAILS  —  some   forty   species   in   number  —  are  generally  regarded    as 

belonging  to  a  distinct  group. 

That  ornament  to  all  rural  scenery,  the  PHEASANT,  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from 

the  banks  of  the  river  Phasis,  in  Colchis,  Transcaucasia,  by  the  Romans  —  at  least,  the  original 

form  of  pheasant  was.     Late  during  the  eighteenth  century  a  Japanese  and  a   Chinese  form 

were  introduced,  and  these  have  freely  interbred  with  the  original  form,  so  that  pure  bred 

specimens  of  any  of  the  three  are  rare. 

The  speed  of  a  pheasant  on  the  wing  in  full   flight  has  been  estimated  at  thirty-eight 

miles  an  hour.     Occasionally  pheasants  will  take  to  the  water,  and  are  said  to  swim  well. 

The  number  of  pheasants  reared  by  hand  at  the  present  day  is  prodigious.     In   1883, 

Professor  Newton  tells  us,   134,000  pheasants' 

eggs  were  sold  from  one  estate  in  Norfolk,  while 

9,700  fully  grown  birds  were  killed  upon  it.      In 

olden  times  pheasants  were  taken  in  snares  or 

nets,  by  hawking,  and  by  the  cross-bow ;  but  on 

the  introduction  of  guns  these  methods  were 

superseded. 

Yet  another  form  of  pheasant  has  been  in- 
troduced here  of  late  years.     This  is  Ki  i  vi  s*S 

PHEASANT,  a  truly  magnificent  bird,  with  a  tail 

fully  5  feet  long  in  adult  males.     These  birds 

also  interbreed  with  the  more  common  forms, 

but  not   freely. 

Beautiful   as  these  pheasants  undoubtedly 

arc,  they  are  eclipsed  by  many  of  their  relatives. 

Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  we  may 

notice  the  magnificent   TRA<;<  >i'A\s.     Rich    in 

coloration   of    the    feathers,    these    birds    have 

added  an  additional  feature  in  brilliantly  coloured 

areas  of  bare  skin  on  the  head  and  neck,  which 

are  furthermore  rendered  conspicuous  by  being 


BROWN    LEGHORN    loCK 

l^Hte   Ltfkarni 


TMl  ireeJ  has   I'ttn   JtrifrJ  ' 

Game-fowl 


Tnm  t,  C.  Rtid~\ 


SILVER-SPANGLED    HAMBURGS 

This  bird  apparently  originated  in  England 


N.B. 


DARK    BRAMAS 

The  Brama  is  an  Asiatic  breed 
19 


,  N.B. 


20 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


developed  with  "  horns  "  and  wattles.  These  "  horns  "  can  be  erected  at  will,  a  process  which 
causes  them  at  the  same  time  to  be  greatly  increased  in  size.  The  bird,  with  a  proud  con- 
sciousness of  his  beauty,  displays  his  charms  to  the  full  when  wooing.  Mr.  Kartlctt  tells  us 
that,  "after  walking  about  rather  excitedly,  he  places  himself  in  front  of  the  female,  with 
the  body  slightly  crouching  upon  the  legs,  and  the  tail  bent  downwards;  the  head  is  then 
violently  jerked  downwards,  and  the  horns  and  wattle  become  conspicuous.  The  wings  have 
a  flapping  motion,  and  the  bright  red  patch  on  them  is  fully  displayed.  The  whole  of  the 
neck  appears  to  be  larger  than  usual  during  this  action,  so  do  the  horns,  which,  moreover, 
vibrate  with  every  motion.  This  scene  is  concluded  by  the  bird  suddenly  drawing  himself  up 
to  his  full  height,  with  his  wings  expanded  and  quivering,  the  horns  erect,  and  the  wattles 
fully  displayed." 

Equally  splendid,  some  think  more  so,  are  the  four  species  of  pheasant  known  as  MONALS 
or  I.Mi'KYAN  PHEASANTS.     The  plumage  in  this  case  looks  like  burnished  metal  rather  than 


/•*•/•  it  C    Kilt\ 


[tfiiluu;  N.t. 


SILVER    WYANDOTTE    HEN    WITH    PHEASANT    CHICKS 

TAil  it  an  American  treed,  derived  by  (rolling  it-itA  the  Brama 

feathers.    The  head  is  adorned  with  a  crest  either  of  long  or  beautifully  curled  feathers.     Monals 
are  found  in  the  same  haunts  as  the  tragopans —  the  highest  forest  regions  of  the  Himalaya. 

But  the  most  gorgeous  of  all  the  Pheasant  Tribe  are  perhaps  the  (>m  in  \  I'III:\V\MS. 
The  crimson  body  and  exquisitely  beautiful  collar  of  gold  barred  with  black  constitute  a 
perfectly  royal  livery.  Since,  however,  these  are  amongst  the  commonest  occupants  of  the 
aviary,  we  need  not  describe  them  further  here.  They  are  natives  of  China  and  Tibet. 

Jl   \«. I. K.-H  >\VI.    AND    TliriK    1  )< 'M1XI  h    MM'    DESCENDANTS 

These  birds,  of  which  there  are  four  distinct  species,  are  close  allies  of  the  domesticated 
fowls:  the  descent  of  these  latter,  indeed,  is  traced  from  the  red  jungle-fowl  of  the  Himalaya 
and  Central  India.  The  characteristic  features  of  the  group  are  the  naked  head,  bearing  the 
familiar  wattles  and  fleshy  comb,  ami  the  formidable  spurs  on  the  legs. 

The   varieties   of  the   domesticated   jungle-fowl    are    numerous.      The   pugnacity   of  the 


THE    GAME-BIRDS    AND    RAILS 


2  I 


PEACOCK 

Note  the  perfectly  symmetrical  distribution  of  the  "  eyes  "  in  the  "  train  ** 

members  known  as  the  GAME-BREED  is  well  known,  and  in  the  days  of  cock-fighting  large 
sums  of  money  changed  hands  over  the  fierce  battles  waged  by  rival  game-cocks  pitted  one 
against  the  other  —  the  game-cock,  it  should  be  remarked,  being  the  little-modified  descendant 
of  the  red  jungle-cock. 

The  modern  game-cock  is  purely  a  show-bird,  breeders  having  changed  the  type  by 
selecting  characters  which  would  render  the  bird  quite  unable  to  hold  its  own  if  matched  in 
battle  with  one  of  the  original  breed. 

Very  different  from  the  wild  ancestor  is  the  huge,  much-feathered  COCHIN.  This  was 
introduced  into  England,  not  from  Cochin-China,  as  is  popularly  supposed,  but  from  Shanghai, 
some  fifty  years  ago.  At  that  time  this  bird  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  wonderfully 
prolific.  This  is,  alas!  no  longer  a  feature  of  the  breed.  The  show-pen  is  apparently  respon- 
sible for  this,  attention  having  been  paid  rather  to 
external  appearance  than  to  useful  qualities. 

The  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  and  DORKING  are  both 
well-known     breeds.      The    former    is    of  American 
origin,  made  by  crossing  Cochins  with  a  native  breed 
—  the  Dominique. 

The  BLACK  SPANISH,  MINORCAS,  LEGHORNS, 
ANDALUSIANS,  etc.,  constitute  what  are  known  as 
the  Mediterranean  breeds.  They  are  noted  for  their 
great  prolificacy.  This  has  been  gained  by  carefully 
breeding  from  the  most  productive  birds,  but  with 
the  result  that  the  instinct  to  sit  has  been  lost 
entirely.  This  is  a  matter  of  no  consequence,  how- 

Ph,t.  k,  L.  Midland,  F.Z.S.]  [JV.rl*  FinM,, 

ever,  as  when  chicks  are  required  there  are  plenty  of 

"  broody "  hens  of  other  breeds  which  can  be  made  BACK    VIEW    OF    PEACOCK 

tO    Undertake    the    duties    of   foster-mother.  Note  the  true  tail,  like  a  stout  fan,  supporting  the  train 


22 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


HU 


BLACK-CHESTED    CRESTED   GUINEA-FOWL 

Ttit  it  a  black  tirj,  w/rii  ligkt  blue  ifoti 


The  HAMBURGS  are  of  two  kinds  —  the 
SPANGI.KH,  which  is  of  English,  and  the 
PENCILLED,  of  Continental  origin. 

A  very  old  breed  is  the  POLISH.  It  figures 
often  in  the  pictures  of  the  old  Dutch 
masters.  One  of  its  chief  characteristics  is 
the  huge  crest  of  fathers  rising  from  the 
crown  of  the  head.  The  development  of  this 
crest  has  had  a  very  extraordinary  effect  upon 
the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  skull, 
entirely  altering  the  shape  of  the  brain-case. 

Perhaps  the  most  artificial  of  all  breeds  of 
fowl  are  the  SEUKICHT  BANTAMS.  These  are 
diminutive  birds,  the  result  of  a  cross  between 
the  Polish  with  "  laced  "  feathers  and  a  bantam. 
The  feathers  of  this  cross  are  beautifully 
"  laced  "  —  that  is,  they  are  white,  edged  with 
black.  Another  interesting  diminutive  breed 
is  the  JAPANESE  BANTAM.  The  cock  carries  its  tail,  which  is  long,  remarkably  high,  giving  a 
very  quaint  effect.  This  breed  is  further  interesting,  since  it  furnishes  us  with  an  instance 
of  the  breeder's  power  of  localising  colour  by  selection.  The  tail  is  black  and  the  body 
white.  Yet  another  interesting  Japanese  fowl  is  the  remarkable  long-tailed  breed  in  which 
the  tail-coverts  grow  continuously,  attaining  a  length  of  from  9  feet  to,  it  is  said,  18  feet. 
The  birds  are  kept  for  show  purposes.  The  greater  part  of  their  lives  is  passed  tethered 
on  high  perches.  Once  a  day  they  are  taken 
down  for  exercise,  when  the  long  feathers  are 
carefully  rolled  up  and  securely  fastened  out  fv* 
of  harm's  way. 

THE  ARGUS-PHEASANT  AND  PEACOCK  AND 
THEIR  ALLIES 

The  ARGUS-PHEASANT  most  certainly 
demands  notice,  on  account  of  the  extra- 
ordinary development  of  the  wing-quills, 
which  are  nearly  a  yard  long,  and  the 
wondrous  beauty  of  the  pattern  thereon. 
This  pattern  takes  the  form  of  a  number  of 
eyes,  so  shaded  as  to  give  the  appearance, 
when  fully  displayed,  of  a  number  of  balls 
lying  in  a  socket.  These  enormous  quills 
are  borne  only  by  the  male,  and  used,  like 
the  ornamental  feathers  of  its  allies,  in  cap- 
tivating the  female.  When  fully  displayed. 
the  two  wings  are  spread  out  to  form  one 
huge  fan,  producing  an  effect  which  words 
cannot  adequately  describe.  The  argus- 
pheasants  are  found  in  the  forests  of  Siam, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  Sumatra,  and  arc 
excessively  wary  birds. 

The  PEACOCK  is  too  well  known  to  need         BLACK  <  HB8TXD   (  R!  srED  GUINEA-FOWL 
a  very  long  description.     But  a  word  as  to       ^  ^^  Ajf  fcW|  arf  tfm  ^^  Kj]fr 
the  so-called  "  tail."    This  magnificent  wealth  *«'•£  -very  dtlicait  and  muck 


THE    GAME-BIRDS    AND     RAILS 


of  plumes  does  not  represent  the  tail,  as  is  popularly 
supposed,  but  is  made  up  of  the  feathers  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  back  and  the  upper  tail-coverts. 
These  gradually  increase  in  length  from  before-back- 
wards,  culminating  in  the  long  and  exquisite  feathers 
which  form  the  circumference  of  the  huge,  outspread 
shield.  This  shield  is  properly  called  the  "  train  "; 
the  true  tail  lies  behind  it  and  acts  as  a  support. 
When  the  bird  is  about  to  display,  the  "train" 
feathers  are  slowly  and  gently  raised  till  the  well- 
known  fan-shaped  glory  of  green  and  gold  and  blue 
is  exposed  to  the  fullest  possible  extent. 

"  Watch  the  bird  trying  to  do  his  best  to 
persuade  his  chosen  what  a  handsome  fellow  he  is. 
He  first  places  himself  more  or  less  in  front  of  her, 
but  at  some  little  distance  off;  and  then,  watching 
his  opportunity,  walks  rapidly  backwards,  going  faster 
and  faster  and  faster,  till,  arrived  within  a  foot,  he 
suddenly,  like  a  flash,  turns  round  and  displays  to 
the  full  his  truly  gorgeous  vestments.  This  turning 
movement  is  accompanied  by  a  violent  shaking  of 
the  train,  the  quills  of  which  rattle  like  the  pattering 
of  rain  upon  leaves.  Often  this  movement  is  followed 
by  a  loud  scream. 

"When  the  train  is  fully  erect,  it  will  be  noticed  that  it  lies  so  far  forward  that  the 
bird's  head  and  neck  appear  as  if  rising  from  its  base.  In  a  side  view  the  whole  body,  from 
the  front  of  the  wings  backwards,  appears  to  lie  behind  the  train." 

This  bird  is  a  native  of  India,  where   it  is   held  in  great  reverence  by  the  Hindus,   and 


-      ~*~ 

*;jyV 


NEST    OF    BRUSH-TURKEY 

This  is  made  by  several  birds,  of  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  and  left  to  hatch 


e  i/  C.  Ktu\ 


TURKEY    COCK    AND    HEN 

The  curious  "  tassel "  depending  from  the  breast  is  found  in  no  other  bird 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


ff*H  h  Kirrj  *•  C..] 

WALLACE'S    PAINTED    MEGAPODE 

Tkii  tirj  buries  its  eggs  in  ike  land,  burrowing  for  each  a  slanting  noil  from  J  to 
4  feel  deef 


in  the  Hindu  States  it  is  not  allowed 
to  be  killed  under  any  circumstances. 
There  are  two,  some  say  three,  distinct 
species  of  peacock,  but  they  all  closely 
resemble  one  another. 

Brief  mention  will  serve  for  the 
Gl'lM  \-i  <>\\  i  ^  and  TURKEYS,  since 
they  are  well  known  to  us  all.  Gn\r:.\- 
KOWI.S  arc  African  birds.  The  farm- 
yard form,  popularly  known  as  "  Come- 
backs," from  their  peculiar  cry 
"  come-back,  come-back,  come-back," 
is  a  descendant  of  the  common 
helmeted  form,  of  which  type  there 
are  eight  distinct  species.  Besides 
these  are  four  crested  specie^ ;  <>ne 
very  beautiful  species  known  as  the 
Yri/lTRK  I. IKK  GriM -.\-\ •(  >\\  I  ;  and 
one,  the  rarest  of  all,  known  as  the 
BLACK  GUIM:A-R>\VI..  i:\cn  in  the 
British  Museum,  writes  Mr.  Ogilvie  Grant,  "  there  are  only  two  examples  of  it,  and  neither  of 
these  are  perfect  specimens."  It  was  discovered  by  M.  Du  Chaillu.  "  One  day,"  he  says,  "  I 
went  out  hunting  by  myself,  and,  to  my  great  joy,  shot  another  new  bird,  a  black  wild-fowl,  one 
of  the  most  singular  birds  I  have  seen  in  Africa.  .  .  .  The  head,  where  it  is  bare,  is  in  the 
female  of  a  pink  hue,  and  in  the  male  of  a  bright  scarlet.  .  .  .  Wild  they  are,  and  most 
difficult  to  approach,  and  rare,  even  in  the  forests  where  they  are  at  home."  They  do  not 
travel  in  huge  flocks,  like  other  guinea-fowls,  but  a  male  and  two  females  at  most. 

The  familiar  form  of  the  TURKEY  scarcely  needs  description;  but  most  people  are  probably 
puzzled  by  its  name.  Why  Turkey?  The  bird  is  a  native  of  America,  so  it  certainly  cannot 
have  anything  to  do  with  its  place  of  origin.  Professor  Newton  has  it  that  it  is  on  account 
of  its  call-note,  "  to  be  syllabled  '  turk,  turk,  turk,'  whereby  it  may  almost  be  said  to  have 
named  itself." 

The  domesticated  turkey  is  descended  from  the  MEXICAN  TURKEY,  and  was  probably 
introduced  into  Europe  during  the  sixteenth  century.  This,  according  to  Captain  Bendire,  is 
a  mountain-living  species,  and  still  abundant  in  the  wilder  portions  of  Western  Texas  and 
New  Mexico.  It  appears  to  attain  greater  bulk  than  its  domesticated  descendant,  Captain 
Bendire  having  recorded  a  specimen  shot  by  himself  which  weighed  28  Ibs.  after  having  been 
drawn,  and  heavier  birds  are  said  to  occur  occasionally. 

The  Mexicans  say  that  the  coyotes  catch  turkeys  by  running  in  circles  under  the  tree 
in  which  they  are  roosting,  till  the  birds  get  dizzy  with  watching  them,  and  fall  clown  into 
the  open  mouths  below  ! 

There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  turkey  —  the  Mi\u\\,  AMIKK  \\,  and  Hoxiti  KAS 
TURKEY.  The  last  is  a  very  fine  bird,  with  a  bright  blue  head  and  neck,  instead  of 
red.  The  top  of  the  head  is  adorned  with  numerous  scarlet,  berry-like  warts,  looking  like 
holly-berries. 


THE    GAME-BIRDS    AND    RAILS 


The  MEGAPODES  and  BRUSH-TURKEYS,  though  dull  and  uninteresting-looking  birds,  are,  on 
account  of  the  facts  connected  with  the  propagation  of  their  species,  quite  remarkable.  They 
do  not  brood  over  their  eggs,  as  do  other  birds,  but  instead  bury  them,  either  in  sand  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  warm  springs  or  in  heaps  of  decaying  vegetable  matter.  In  the  latter 
case  the  material  is  often  collected  by  several  birds  working  together.  Mounds  of  8  feet  high 
and  60  feet  in  circumference  have  been  found,  the  work  of  the  NlCOBAR  MEGAPODE.  Such 
have  been  many  years  in  use,  material  being  added  each  season.  Into  this  mass  the  female 
digs  down  and  deposits  an  egg  every  second  day,  covering  it  up  as  soon  as  laid.  There 
it  remains  till  hatched,  when  the  young,  probably  aided  by  its  mother,  forces  its  way  up  to 
the  surface,  and  emerges,  not  a  downy  nestling  as  one  would  expect,  but  clothed  with  feathers 
differing  but  slightly  in  texture  from  those  worn  in  the  adult  state.  Owing  to  the  precocious 
development,  young  megapodes  are  able  to  fly  within  an  hour  after  birth. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  megapodes  occurring  in  Australia,  Samoa,  and  the 
Nicobar  and  Philippine  Islands. 


Photo  by  Scholastic  Photo.   Co.] 

RAZOR-BILLED    CURASSOW 

So  called  from  the  sharp  ridge  along  the  top  (if  the  beak 


h.ta,,i,  PhM.  C,.} 

CRESTED    CURASSOW 

So  called  from  Its  crest  of  curled  feathers 


The  CURASSOWS  and  GUANS  are  very  handsome  birds,  but  probably  quite  unknown  to  most 
of  our  readers,  yet  they  may  always  be  seen  in  Zoological  Gardens.  They  are  closely  re- 
lated to  the  megapodes,  which  we  have  just  been  discussing;  but  their  nesting  habits  are 
quite  different.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  nests,  either  on  the  ground  or  in  trees,  and  brood 
over  them  like  other  birds.  Many  have  brilliantly  coloured  bare  skin  on  the  head  and 
handsome  crests.  They  are  natives  of  Central  and  South  America,  where  they  are  often 
kept  by  the  settlers,  as  they  tarn?  easily.  It  is  said  that  one  of  the  guans,  when  crossed  with 
the  domesticated  fowl,  becomes  intensely  pugnacious,  and  superior  to  the  game-cock  for 
fighting  purposes 

BUSTARD-QUAIL  AND  PLAIN-WANDERERS 

These  are  small  and  quail-like  in  appearance,  though  they  are  probably  only  distant 
relatives  of  the  Game-birds.  But  they  are,  nevertheless,  remarkable  birds.  A  great  authority, 
Mr.  A.  O.  Hume,  writing  of  the  INDIAN  Bl'STARD-QUAlL,  says  of  them  :  "  The  most  remarkable 
point  in  the  life-history  of  these  bustard-quails  is  the  extraordinary  fashion  in  which,  amongst 
them,  the  position  of  the  sexes  is  reversed.  The  females  are  the  larger  and  handsomer  birds. 
The  females  only  call,  the  females  only  fight  —  natives  say  that  they  fight  for  the  males,- and 
probably  this  is  true.  The  males  .  .  .  only  ...  sit  upon  the  eggs,  the  females  meanwhile 
larking  about,  calling,  and  fighting,  without  any  care  for  their  obedient  mates ;  and,  lastly,  the 
males  tend  .  .  .  the  young  brood." 


26        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  group  has  a  wide  geographical  range,  occurring  in  Europe,  Africa,  Madagascar,  South 
Asia,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  Australia. 

THE  HOATZIN 

This  bird  is  one  of  the  puzzles  of  the  ornithologist.  Its  pedigree  is  still  a  mystery, 
but  it  is  generally  believed  to  have  some  relation  to  the  d. inn  birds.  Its  whole  life 
is  passed  in  trees  overhanging  water,  and  its  flight  restricted  to  short  journeys  from  tree 
to  tree.  In  South  America,  its  home,  it  is  known  by  a  variety  of  names,  one  of  which  means 
STINKING-PHEASANT.  This  is  in  allusion  to  the  peculiar  odour  of  its  flesh,  which  smells. 
according  to  some,  like  musk,  and  to  others  like  raw  hides.  Another  remarkable  feature  of 
this  bird  is  the  fact  that  it  has  turned  its  crop  into  a  sort  of  gizzard,  whilst  the  true  gizzard, 
having  been  relieved  of  its  functions,  has  diminished  to  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut.  The  unusual 
purpose  to  which  the  crop  has  been  put  has  brought  about  considerable  modification  in  the 

form    of   the    breast-bone,    which    is   quite 
different  to  that  of  any  other  bird. 

The  young  of  these  birds  are  quite  .is 
remarkable  as  the  parents,  for  almost  as  soon 
as  they  are  hatched  they  crawl  out  of  the 
nest,  along  the  boughs  of  the  tree  in  which 
it  rests,  to  meet  the  parents  coming  with 
food.  In  these  crawling  excursions  they  are 
aided  by  the  wings,  which  for  a  time  serve 
as  fore  feet.  The  thumb  and  first  finder 
armed  with  strong  claws,  with  which  a  firm 
hold  is  gained  on  the  bark  of  the  tree. 
To  render  these  claws  effective  so  long  as 
they  are  necessary,  the  quill-feathers  of  tin- 
tip  of  the  wing  have  their  development 
checked  till  the  others  have  grown  long 
enough  to  serve  the  purposes  of  flight. 

Tin:  RAH  > 

The  KAILS  are  all  water-loving  birds, 
dwelling  in  swamps  or  on  the  borders  of 
lakes  and  streams.  Although  all  swim 

.  .,         .      . 

easily,  none  have  webbed   feet.      1  he   flight 
HOATZIN  js  Weak;     Several    species,   indeed.   h:ive    lost 

TUi  i,  t  native  of  the  Amtmons  falley,  and  livci  entirely  in  ike  irtts  this    power    altogether.       The    body    is    much 

compressed,  enabling  them  to  pass  readily 

through  the  narrow  interspaces  of  dense  aquatic  foliage.  Tin-  Kails  appear  to  be  related  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  Game-birds,  and  on  the  other  to  the  (.'runes.  In  si/c  they  vary  from 
a  bird  as  large  as  a  fowl  to  one  as  small  as  a  lark. 

One  of  the  commonest  of  the  Rails  is  the  C<  iKN-CKAKK,  more  commonly,  perhaps. 
known  as  the  LAND-KAIL.  Its  curious  grating  cry  is  one  of  the  commonest  sounds  which  the 
summer  brings  with  it,  and  one  possessing  a  charm  of  its  own.  Hut  rarely  seen,  it  builds 
its  nest  in  hay-fields,  and,  when  the  grass  i-,  being  cut,  sits  so  closely  on  its  treasures  that  it 
is  sometimes  beheaded  by  the  swinging  scythe.  In  the  autumn  it  falls  not  infrequently  to 
the  sportsmen  when  partridge-shooting.  The  corn-crake  leaves  in  the  winter  for  the  in.. re 
congenial  climate  of  Africa,  a  feat  th.it  seems  wonderful  when  its  feeble  powers  of  flight  are 
considered.  Its  near  relative  the  \Vvil.K-kAll.  is  rather  a  handsome  bird,  but  of  shy  and 
retiring  habr 

The   \Vr.KA-K.\lL,  a   native   of  New   /calami,   is  one  of  the   flightless  forms   to  which  we 


THE    GAME-BIRDS    AND    RAILS 


27 


Photo  by  Scholaitic  Photo.  Co.] 


WEKA-RAIL 

Ike  -wings,  though  fairly  large,  are  useless  for  fight 


have  referred.     It  is  about  as 

large  as  a  pheasant,  but  lacks 

its    splendour,    being   soberly 

clad  in  brown  and  black.     Un- 
like  its   relative,  it  breeds  in 

a    burrow,   which    it  digs    for 

itself  by   the    aid    of  its   bill. 

The  name  "  weka  "  was  given 

it  by  the  Maoris. 

The    COMMON   WATER- 
HEN,  or  MOOR-HEN,  is  one  of 

the  most  familiar  birds  of  the 

London  parks.     Although  fre- 
quent   enough     to     be     seen 

upon     streams     and     broads, 

it    is,    nevertheless,    shy    and 

wary ;  but  in  the  sanctuary  of 

the  public  parks  all  reserve  is 

thrown    off.     The    water-hen, 

like    its    allies,    is    an    expert 

swimmer,  in  spite  of  the  fact 

that  the  toes  are  not  webbed ; 

on  the  contrary,  they  are  very 

long   and   slender.     When   alarmed,  these   birds  will   often   submerge   the   body   till   only  the 

beak  projects  above  water. 

All  the  members  of  this  group  are  easily  recognised  by  the  bare  patch  of  skin  extending 

from  the  beak  on  to  the  top  of  the  head.     In  the  COOTS  this  is  white;   in  the  WATER-HENS 

and  GALLIXULES  it  is  red.     The  coots  and  water-hens  are  clad  in  sober  colours,  grey  or  black ; 

but  the  gallinules  are  gorgeously  clad  in  purple,  shaded  with  dark  green,  olive-brown,  and  black. 

MANTELL'S  GALLINULE  of 
New  Zealand  is  probably  now 
extinct,  the  last  bird  having 
been  killed  in  1898. 


THE  FIN-FEET 

These  are  little-known 
birds,  found  in  Africa,  South 
America,  South-east  Asia,  and 
Sumatra.  They  are  closely 
related  to  the  coots,  but  differ 
therefrom  in  many  important 
particulars.  Like  the  coots, 
they  are  river-haunting  birds, 
and  have  broad  flaps  of 
skin  fringing  the  toes,  which 
serve  the  purpose  of  a 
web ;  but  they  have  much 
longer  necks  and  tails  than 
the  coots  and  water-hens. 
Not  much  is  known  about 
them. 


Phut  fy  If.  F.  fifgilt]  [liightcn  Bux. 

WATER-RAIL 

This  is  a  common  British  bird,  seldom  seen,  on  account  of  its  retiring  habits 


CHAPTER    III 


PIGEONS  AND   SAND-GROUSE 

PIGEONS,  as  a  rule,  are  birds  of  wonderful  powers  of  flight.     The  young,   which   never 
exceed  two  in  number,  are  hatched  perfectly  blind  and  helpless,  and  but  sparsely  clothed. 
They  are  nourished  by  a  peculiar  milky  secretion  of  the  parents'  crop  known  as  "  pigeons' 
milk."     The  operation   of  feeding  is  performed    by  the  parent  thrusting  its   beak    into    the 
mouth  of  its  offspring  and  ejecting  therein  the  secretion  just  referred  to.     The  nest  is  a  very 
simple  structure,  being  composed  of  twigs,  generally  placed  in  a  tree,  but  sometimes  in  a 
cave  or  hole  in  a  bank.     The  eggs,  which  never  exceed  two  in  number,  are  pure  white. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  species  occur  among  the  large  group  known  as  FKI  i  r-i  ii.i  >  >\s. 
Many   of  these  are   invested   in  raiment  of  vivid  green  and  yellow,   forming  a  little   coterie 

by  themselves  —  the  GUI  i  \ 
PK;I:I  >NS.  <  Hhers,  on  account 
of  their  brilliancy,  have  been 
designated  PAIN  ri:i>  I'H.KI  >\-s, 
of  which,  perhaps,  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  is  I-'.idi  \i  s 
PICKON.  Try  to  imagine 
it !  The  head  is  pure  white, 
the  upper  part  of  the  breast 
a  purple-red  surrounded  by 
a  dull  purple  b.md:  the 
under  parts  are  greyish  green, 
shading  into  white  ;  the  flanks 
green  ;  whilst  the  upper  parts 
are  also  green,  but  of  a  rich 
OF  YOUNG  PIGEONS  IN  NEST  br()I1Xc.  tim.  Another  group 

The  hair-likt  down  of  tke  young  figeon  it  juite  diferent  to  any  other  nettling  down 


I 

[Btrihamittd 

NEST 

from  the  Fiji  Islands  includes 
a    magnificent    species,    the 

male  of  which  is  clothed  in  a  glorious  orange,  save  the  head  and  throat,  which  are  olive- 
yellow.  His  mate  is  scarcely  less  beautiful,  her  plumage  being  rich  green.  Another  member 
of  the  group— the  WHITE  NUTMEG-PIGEON  —  is  clad  in  creamy  white,  with  black  quills,  and 
a  black  tip  to  the  tail.  It  is  a  native  of  Borneo.  The  fruit-pigeons,  it  should  be  mentioned, 
include  some  of  the  largest  of  living  pigeons. 

Whilst  many  of  the  Pigeon  Tribe  seem  to  have  succeeded  in  dyeing  their  feathers  with  all 
the  hues  of  the  rainbow,  others  have  secured  equal  glory  by  a  covering  which  at  first  sight 
would  rather  appear  to  be  of  burnished  metal  than  of  feathers.  The  most  striking  instance  <•!" 
this  is  found  in  the  magnificent  NICOHAK  PIGEONS.  There  are  two  species  of  these  birds,  which 
occur  not  only  in  the  Nicobar  Islands,  from  which  they  take  their  name,  but  aK,,  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago  and  the  Solomon  and  IVlew  IsLmls.  The  general  tone  of  the  one  species  is  black, 
but  the  upper  parts  are  superbly  gl,,sM-d  with  bron/e  and  copper  reflections.  The  other,  from 
the  1'elcw  Islands,  is  indigo-blue  in  general  tone.  In  ..lie  of  the  Nicobar  Islands  these  birds 
occur  in  thousands.  Furthermore,  these  two  pigeons  stand  alone,  in  that  the  neck  feathers 
are  greatly  elongated,  forming  "  hackles  "  like  those  of  the  common  fowl. 

The  largest  of  living  pigeons  are  the  GOURAS, OfCROWNED  PlOBONS.    There  are  six  species, 


/>*./.  bj  J.  T.  Ktu-mat] 

A    PAIR 


28 


Phoio  t>*  L.  Me.-:an.-,  F.Z.S'}  [North  Finch! ti 

SOUTHERN     FRUIT-PIGEON 

The  flesh  of  the  fruit-pigeon  surpasses  that  of  all  other  birds  in 
delicacy 


Photo  \>y  L.  Midland,   F.Z.S.}  [North  Finthly 

NICOBAR    IMPERIAL    FRUIT-PIGEONS 

These  birds  lay  but  a  single  eggt  'which  is  large 


• 


Flint  *jr  1C.  P.  DWo,  F.Z.S. 

NEW    GUINEA    CROWNED    PIGEON 

This  is  the  largest  of  living  pigeons 

3 


Phut  bj  If.  P.    Dande,   F.Z.S. 

WONGA-WONGA    PIGEON 

This  bird  is  Jound  in  the  brush  country  of  Eastern  Australia 


29 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


all  of  which  are  confined   to  Australasia.     They  are  characterised  by  a  huge  and  very  beautiful 
fan-shaped  crest  of  feathers  which  springs  from  the  crown  of  the  head. 

At  the  other  extreme  stand  the  NAMAQUA  and  SCALY  DOVES.  The  former  is  regarded  by 
Professor  Newton  as  one  of  the  most  graceful  in  form  of  all  the  Pigeon  Tribe :  the  latter  are 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  larger  than  the  sparrows. 

The  power  of  flight  of  some  forms  is,  however,  extremely  limited ;  they  bid  fair  in  course 
of  time  to  become  flightless,  like  the  dodo  and  the  solitaire.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
is  the  GREY-NAPED  GROUND-PIGEON.  Pigeons  for  the  most  part  display  a  marked  preference 
for  a  life  among  the  trees  rather  than  on  the  ground ;  but  there  are  some  which  are  essentially 
ground-dwellers.  The  species  in  which  this  changed  habit  is  most  deeply  rooted,  and  probably 
of  longest  standing,  exhibit  one  very  interesting  point  of  difference  from  their  neighbours  of 
the  woods.  This  difference  consists  in  the  very  considerably  longer  legs  which  mark  the 
ground-haunting  bird.  The  GREY-NAPED  GROUND-PIGEON  of  South-east  New  Guinea  forms  an 
excellent  example,  inasmuch  as  the  legs  are  much  longer  than  in  any  other  pigeon.  11 1 
birds  (for  there  are  three  species  in  all)  resemble  the  Megapodes  in  habit,  and  frequent  hills 
or  dense  thickets.  They  lay  one  egg,  which  is  deposited  at  the  foot  of  a  tree. 

Among  domesticated  breeds  is  the  ENGLISH  POUTER,  a  bird  characterised  by  its  enormous 

gullet,  which  can  be  distended  with  air 
whenever  the  owner  wills.  The  carriage  of 
the  body  is  vertical,  not,  as  in  pigeons 
generally,  horizontal.  The  CARRIER  is  a  breed 
illustrating  the  result  of  long-sustained  selec- 
tion to  increase,  amongst  other  character-;. 
the  development  of  the  bare  skin  surrounding 
the  eye  and  beak  of  all  pigeons,  wild  or  tame. 
In  the  SHORT-FACED  TfMin.KR  we  have  a  breed 
wherein  those  birds  with  the  shortest  beaks 
have  been  steadily  bred  from.  To-day  so 
little  beak  is  left  that  some  individuals  are 
hatched  which,  when  grown  up,  are  unable  to 
feed  themselves.  An  example  of  a  radical 
change  in  the  feathers  is  the  IMMAN  !•" KILL- 
BACK.  In  this  case  the  leathers  all  over 
the  body  are  reversed,  or  turned  forwards, 
giving  the  bird  a  quite  extraordinary  appearance.  In  the  JACOBIN  we  have  a  breed  —and  we 
could  cite  others  —  wherein  the  feathers  of  the  neck  are  much  elongated,  and  turn  upwards 
and  forwards  over  the  head  to  form  a  hood. 

In  general  appearance  SAND-GROUSE  are  small,  very  short-legged  birds,  with  small  heads 
and  pointed  wings  and  tail.  Their  general  tone  of  coloration  may  be  described  as  sand- 
coloured,  and  this  has  been  adopted  to  render  them  in  harmony  with  the  barren  sand- wastes 
in  which  they  dwell.  But  some  may  be  described  as  quite  highly  coloured,  being  banded  and 
splashed  with  chestnut,  black,  pearly  grey,  white,  and  yellow,  according  to  the  specie-;. 

PALLAS'S  SAND-GROUSE  is  a  native  of  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  extending  through  Central  Asia  to 
Mongolia  and  Northern  China,  and  northwards  to  Lake  Baikal,  and  southwards  to  Turkestan. 
Here  they  maybe  met  with  in  enormous  numbers.  In  North  China  large  numbers  are  often 
caught  after  a  snow-storm.  The  snow  is  cleared  away,  and  a  small  green  bean  is  scattered  about. 
Young  sand-grouse  differ  remarkably  in  one  particular  from  young  pigeons,  inasmuch  as  the 
former  are  hatched  covered  with  a  thick  down,  and  are  able  to  run  about  soon  alter  leaving 
the  egg,  whilst  the  pigeon  comes  into  the  world  very  helpless  and  much  in  need  of  clothing. 
Three  eggs  are  laid  by  the  sand-grouse,  anil  these  arc  double-spotted  ;  whilst  the  pigeon  lays 
but  two,  which  are  white.  The  eggs  of  the  sand-grouse  arc  laid  in  a  depression  in  the  ground, 
without  any  nest. 


t  k,  L.  Mid'.end,  F.Z.S.]  [Ninh  fltuMtj 

MALE    BLACK-BELLIED    SAND-GROUSE 

Young  tand-groute  run  directly  lAe\  are  hatched,  thui  differing  from 
young  figeont 


CHAPTER    IV 

AUKS,    GULLS,   AND   PLO7ERS 


THE   AUK   TRIBE 

THE  GUILLEMOT  is  found  all  around  Britain,  and  breeds  wherever  the  sea  is  fringed  by 
cliffs  affording  ledges  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  It  breeds  in  colonies  often  num- 
bering many  thousands,  and  lays  but  one  egg,  which  is  large  and  pear-shaped.  Since 
the  guillemot  builds  no  nest,  but  lays  its  egg  on  the  bare  rock,  this  peculiar  shape  is  advanta- 
geous, since  it  revolves  on  itself,  when  disturbed,  instead  of  rolling  off  the  ledge  into  the  sea.  At 
the  same  time  thousands  of  eggs  fall  into  the  sea  every  year  owing  to  the  bird's  leaving  the  egg, 
whilst  incubating,  in  too  great  a  hurry.  At  Lundy 
Island  one  of  the  sources  of  amusement  for  the  gap- 
ing tourist  was  that  of  firing  a  shot  to  frighten  the 
birds,  with  the  result  that,  at  each  shot,  showers  of 
eggs  were  knocked  off  the  ledges  on  to  the  rocks 
below.  The  colour  of  the  egg  varies  infinitely,  no  two 
being  quite  alike.  This,  it  has  been  suggested,  is 
useful,  as  the  mother  is  thereby  enabled  to  identify 
her  own  egg,  even  when  surrounded  by  hundreds  of 
others.  The  young  are  covered  with  long  down, 
and  when  big  enough,  but  still  unable  to  fly,  are 
taken  down  by  the  mother  to  the  sea,  being  carried, 
some  say,  on  her  back :  others  say  the  chick  is 
seized  by  the  wing  and  carried  down. 

The  RAZOR-BILL  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  com- 
mon on  the  coasts  of  Britain  as  the  guillemot,  from 
which  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  beak, 
which  is  much  compressed  from  side  to  side — hence 
its  name  of  Razor-bill  —  and  deeply  grooved.  In 
habits  it  very  closely  resembles  the  guillemot,  but  in 
one  respect  at  least  it  is  a  more  interesting  bird, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  related  to  and  closely  resembles  the  now  extinct  GREAT  AUK,  the  giant 
of  the  tribe.  The  smallest  British  representative,  it  should  be  mentioned,  is  the  LITTLE 
AUK,  a  species  more  nearly  allied  to  the  guillemot.  It  is  only  a  winter  visitant  to  Britain, 
breeding  in  huge  colonies  on  the  inhospitable  shores  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

So  quaint  a  bird  as  the  PUFFIN  most  certainly  finds  a  place  here.  One  of  its  most 
characteristic  features  is  its  enormous  bill,  which  is  rendered  more  conspicuous  on  account  of 
its  bright  colour.  It  is  bluish  at  the  base,  yellow  at  the  tip,  and  striped  with  orange.  A  very 
remarkable  feature  of  this  bill  is  the  fact  that  it  is  larger  in  summer  than  winter,  portions 
of  the  sheath  being  shed  in  autumn. 

Enormous  numbers  of  puffins  breed  in  Ireland ;  myriads  breed  on  Lundy  Island.  The 
Fame  Islands,  the  cliffs  of  Flamborough,  and  Scotland  are  also  tenanted  by  thousands.  Puffins 
breed  in  holes,  which  they  dig  for  themselves  when  occasion  requires,  but  when  rabbit-burrows 
are  to  be  had  they  prefer  these,  dispossessing  the  owners  without  the  slightest  compunction. 
Might,  with  the  puffin,  is  right,  as  well  as  with  many  other  animals. 


By  ptr mission  of  tht  Hen.  Walter  Rothschild,  Trtng 

WHITE   TERN 

There  are  t-ivo  species  of  'white  tern,  a/most  restricted  to  the 
Southern  Hemisphere 


32         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Young  puffins,  like  young  auks  and  guillemots,  are  hatched  covered  with  long  down.  The 
parents  feed  them  on  fish,  which  they  deposit  at  the  mouth  of  the  burrow  twenty  at  a  time, 
and  give  them  to  the  young  bird  one  by  one.  When  the  female  is  sitting,  her  mate  feeds 
her  in  a  similar  way. 

Puffins  lay  only  a  single  egg,  which  differs  from  that  of  its  relatives  the  Auks  and  Guille- 
mots in  being  white.  The  white  colour  enables  the  sitting-bird  to  see  it  in  the  dark  burrow. 

THE   GULL  TRIBE 

To  get  at  the  real  inwardness  of  the  Gull  Tribe,  so  to  speak,  we  must  examine  tin  •it- 
anatomy  very  closely;  then  we  shall  be  convinced  that  they  are  modified  Plovers,  and  have 

nothing  to  do  with  the  Petrels,  to 
which  they  bear  an  undoubted  re- 
semblance. 

TERNS 

Terns  are  gulls  in  miniature,  on 
which  account  it  is  probable  that 
many  a  visitor  to  the  seashore 
passes  them  unwittingly.  But  let  him 
watch  next  time  tor  what  look  like 
flocks  of  tiny,  long-\\inged,  and  un- 
usually active  gulls,  now  hovering 
gracefully  in  the  air,  and  now  sud- 
denly plunging  headlong  like  an  arrow 
to  the  sea,  with  a  force  and  dash  that 
will  surprise  him,  now  that  attention 
is  drawn  to  them.  These  are  terns. 
From  their  vivacity  and  forked  tails, 
they  have  been  aptly  named  Sea- 
swallows. 

There  are  several  species  of  tern. 
Like  the  Gulls,  they  have  a  dis- 
tinctive dress  for  summer  and  winter, 
but  the  sexes  are  both  dressed  alike. 
The  general  livery,  as  with  the  ("mils, 
is  pearly  grey  above  and  pure  white 
below  — in  summer,  in  some  species, 
relieved  by  a  black  head.  ( >ne  species, 
the  Rosi  AIT.  TKKN.  has  the  breast 
suffused  with  a  most  exquisite  rose- 
pink,  which  fades  rapidly  after  death, 
however.  Young  terns,  in  their  first 
plumage,  differ  conspicuously  from  their  parents,  having  much  brown  intermixed  with  grey. 

Terns  layabout  three  eggs,  which  are  deposited  among  the  shingle  on  the  beach;  and 
so  closely  do  the  eggs,  and  later  on  the  young,  resemble  the  surrounding  stones  th.it  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  find  them.  As  a  rule  tern-'  breed  in  colonies,  often  numbering  many 
thousand  birds. 

There  are  exceptions  to  the  rule  just  laid  down  as  to  nest  bnildin  i  >ne  species  «,f  the 
NODI'V  TKKNS,  for  example,  builds  a  nest  of  turf  and  dry  grass,  pi, iced  in  bushes  or  in  low- 
trees.  It  seems  to  return  to  the  same  in  -t  year  after  year,  adding  on  each  return  new 
materials,  till  they  form  masses  nearly  2  feet  in  height.  Occasionally  it  appears  to  make  a 
mud-nest,  placed  in  the  fork  ofa  tree;  whilst  the  superb  little  U'liin-  N<>m>Y  often  deposits 


HIM  *f  G.  W*tmui[k  U;h,t,r 

TERNS    ON    A    SHINGLE  BANK 

Term  lay  their  eggs  among  the  shingle  ;  from  their  coloration^  these  are  difficult  to 
detect  among  the  surrounding  stones 


AUKS,  GULLS,  AND  PLOVERS 


33 


[Pa- 


Ph,l«  tv  ScMailic  PhM.  Co.J 

HERRING-GULL 

So  called  from  in  habit  of  following  the  shoals  of  herrin 


its  egg  on  the  leaf  of  a  cocoanut-palm — truly  a  wonderful  site,  and  still  more  wonderful  when 
we  reflect  that  it  is  chosen  by  one  of  the  Gull  Tribe. 

About  six  species  of  tern  commonly  occur  in  the  British    Islands,  and  some  five  or  six 
other  species  occasionally  visit  them. 

SKIMMERS 

The  SKIMMERS  are  tern-like  birds, 
with  a  very  wide  geographical  distri- 
bution, occurring  in  India,  Africa,  and 
North  and  South  America,  and  re- 
markable for  the  very  extraordinary 
form  of  the  beak.  The  upper  jaw  is 
much  shorter  than  the  lower,  and  both 
are  compressed  to  the  thinness  'of  a 
knife-blade.  This  beak  is  associated 
with,  and  is  probably  an  adaptation 
to,  an  equally  remarkable  method  of 
feeding,  which  has  been  admirably 
described  by  Darwin,  who  watched 
them  feeding  in  a  lake  near  Maldonado. 
"  They  kept  their  bills,"  he  says, 
"  wide  open,  and  the  lower  mandible  half  buried  in  the  water.  Thus  skimming  the  surface, 
they  ploughed  it  in  their  course ;  .  .  .  and  it  formed  a  most  curious  spectacle  to  behold  a  flock, 
each  bird  leaving  its  narrow  wake  on  the  mirror-like  surface.  In  their  flight  .  .  .  they 
dexterously  manage  with  their  projecting  lower  mandible  to  plough  up  small  fish,  which  are 
secured  by  the  upper  and  shorter  half  of  their  scissor-like  bills." 

THE  GULLS 

Gulls  are  larger  and 
heavier  birds  than  terns,  with 
longer  legs,  and  shorter, 
thicker  beaks.  Furthermore, 
with  one  exception,  the  tail  is 
never  forked.  Like  the  terns, 
gulls  generally  breed  in 
colonies,  and  these  are  often 
of  large  size.  Young  gulls, 
when  newly  hatched,  are  quite 
active.  Later,  when  their 
feathers  have  grown,  they  are 
found  to  wear  a  dress  quite 
different  from  that  of  the 
parents.  Sometimes  the  ad  tilt 


Pfiott  h  StkoUitic  PJloto.  Co.J  [Parson's  Gretn 

YOUNG  HERRING  GULLS  IN  THE  GREY  PHASE  OF  PLUMAGE 

In  their  dull  grey  plumage  the  young  of  all  gulls  are  i-ery  unlike  the  adults 


plumage  is  gained  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year  of  existence, 
sometimes  not  until  after  the 
third  year.  Gulls  feed  on 

everything  that  comes  in  their  way,  from  fish  caught  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  sea  to 

worms  picked  up  at  the  plough-tail. 

One  of  the  commonest  and  best  known  of  all  the   gulls  is  perhaps  the  species  known 

as  the  BLACK-IIKADKD  Gt'i.L,  which  has  become  so  common  in  the  heart  of  busy  London, 

where  hundreds   may  be  seen,  during  the  winter  months,  Hying  up    and   down  the  river,  or 


34        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


r.(.t>  tj  u:  r. 


STONE-CURLEW,    OR 


[Liighttn  Buvtscard 

THICK.-K.NEE 


The  plumage  u  tlouly  riumblei  the  sandy  mil  an  which  the  bird  lives  that  concealment  is  easily 
effected  ty  crouching  clou  to  the  ground 


wheeling  about  over  the  lakes 
in  the  parks.  The  black- 
headed  gull  rcccivesits  popular 
name  on  account  of  the  fact 
that,  like  some  terns  and 
some  other  gulls,  in  the  spring, 
the  feathers  of  the  head  sud- 
denly acquire  a  sooty-black 
colour:  all  trace  of  this  is 
lost  in  the  winter,  sa\e  for 
two  patches,  one  behind  each 
ear. 

The  eggs  of  this  bird  are 
collected  in  thousands  each 
spring,  and  sold  in  London 
and  other  markets  as  plovers' 
eggs.  As  many  as  20,000 
have  been  taken  in  a  -i-a-on 
from  the  extensive  gullery  at 
Scoulton  Mere,  in  Norfolk. 

Three  or  four  eggs  are  laid  in  a  nest  of  rushes,  which   is  always  placed  on   the  ground    in 

marshy  and  often  inaccessible  spots. 

The  largest  of  the  Gull  Tribe  is  the  GREAT  BLACK-BACKED  Gll.l.,  which  is,  furthermore,  a 

common  British  bird  ;  indeed,  it  is  frequently  seen  flying,  together  with  the  last-mentioned  species, 

on  the  Thames,  doing  its  best  to  get  a  full  share  of  the  tit-bits  thrown  by  interested  spectatois 

from  the  various  London  bridges.     Unlike  the  black-headed  gull,  it  has  no  seasonal  change 

of  plumage,  but  is  clad  all  the  year  round  in  the  purest  white,  set  off  by  a  mantle  of  bluish 

black.     The  young  of  this  bird  has  a  quite  distinct  plumage  of  greyish  brown,  and  hence  has  been 

described  as  a  distinct  species  —  the  GKI:Y  Gl'l.L. 

This  dress  is  gradually  changed  for  the  adult 

plumage,  but  the  process  takes  about  three  years. 
The  KITTIWAKI;  is  another  of  the  common 

British  gulls,  breeding  in  thousands  in  favourable 

localities  on  the  coasts.     Its  eggs  are  deposited 

on  the  narrowest  and  most  inaccessible  ledges 

of  precipitous   cliffs.     This   species   sometimes 

falls  a  victim  to  the  fashion  of  wearing  feathers. 

"  At  Clovelly,"   writes   Mr.  Howard    Saunders, 

"  there  was  a  regular  staff  for  preparing  plumes ; 

and  fishing-smacks,  with  extra  boats  and  crews, 

used  to  commence  their  work  of  destruction  at 

Lundy   Island    by    daybreak    on    the     1st    of 

August.  ...  In    many  cases    the    wings   were 

torn   off  the  wounded   birds  before  they  were 

dead,  the  mangled  victims  being  tossed  back 

into   the  water."     And    he    has   seen,  he   con- 
tinues,   "hundred-    of    young    biids    dead    or 

dying   of   starvation   in   the    ne-t-,   through   the 

want    of   their    parent-'    can-.   ...      It    is    well 

within  the  mark  to  say  that  at  least  9,000  of 

these   inoffensive  birds  were   de-troyed    during  el' Kl.ru 

the  fortnight." 


/•».»  tj  U'.  f.  Pltl'tt 


&  tailed  in  account  of  its  note 


AUKS,    GULLS,    AND    PLOVERS 


35 


Photo  by  C.   ff,  Mavrojeni] 


[Smyrna 


WOODCOCK 

The  female  is  larger  than  the  male 


Of  the  SKUA  GULLS  there  are  several  species.  Their  coloration  differs  from  that  of  the 
gulls  just  described  in  being  confined  to  shades  of  brown.  One  of  their  most  remarkable 
traits  is  that  of  piracy.  They  await  their  cousins  the  Gulls  coming  shoreward  from  the  sea 
with  newly  swallowed  fish,  and  then,  giving  chase,  compel  the  gull,  in  order  to  lighten  itself 
and  escape,  to  disgorge  its  hard-won  meal.  So  swift  of  flight  is  the  skua  that  the  ejected  morsel 
is  caught  before  it  reaches  the  water. 

THE    PLOVER    TRIBE 

BIRDS  of  very  various  size, 
shape,  and  coloration  areincluded 
in  this  group  —  that  is  to  say, 
birds  which  vary  much  super- 
ficially, but,  it  must  be  under- 
stood, all  undoubtedly  closely 
related.  In  England  they  are 
to  be  met  with  almost  every- 
where. The  seashore,  the  lonely 
moorland,  the  desolate  marshes, 
the  river's  brink,  or  the  woods  — 
all  these  shelter  some  one  or 
other  of  the  Plover  Tribe.  Like 
the  Gulls,  many  adopt  a  dis- 
tinctive dress  for  the  courting- 
season,  which,  however,  is  some- 
times worn  by  the  males  only, 
and  not  by  both  sexes  alike, 
as  in  the  Gulls.  One  of  the 
most  striking  and  familiar 
instances  of  this  change  is  seen 
in  the  GREY  PLOVER.  In  winter 
the  plumage  of  the  upper-parts 
of  this  bird  is  dusky  grey,  that  of 
the  under-parts  pure  white  ;  but 
in  the  spring  the  former  is  ex- 
changed for  a  beautifully  varie- 
gated mantle  of  black  and  white, 
and  the  latter  becomes  uniformly 
jet-black,  save  the  under  tail- 
coverts,  which  remain  white. 

In  the  DUNLIN,  again,  we 
have  a  similar  change,  the 
upper-parts  being  in  winter  grey, 
the  under-parts  white :  in  the 
spring  the  former  become  black, 
with  an  admixture  of  rust-colour,  and  the  latter  black  in  so  far  as  the  breast  is  concerned, 
but  the  abdomen  remains  white. 

In  many  of  that  section  of  the  Plover  Tribe  distinguished  as  "  Wading-birds,"  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  spring  in  the  plumage  of  the  upper-parts  resemble  those  already 
instanced,  but  the  under-parts  turn  to  a  rich  chestnut  instead  of  black.  This  occurs  in  the 
forms  known  as  the  Gomvrrs,  KNOTS,  and  SANDKRI.INGS,  for  example. 

In  all  the  instances  so  far  quoted,  both  male  and  female  are  coloured  alike,  but,  as  already 
hinted,  occasionally  the  change  of  plumage  affects  the  male  only.  This  is  the  case  with  the 


Photo  ty  Jt.   H.   F.  Cruitlihani] 

OYSTER-CATCHER    ON    ITS    NEST 

Three  eggs  are  laid  in  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground.      The  oyster-catcher  is  one  of  the  most 
ii-arf  of  the  Plover  Tribe,  and  very  difficult  to  approach 


36         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Kui-T.  The  importance  of  this  ex- 
ception is  still  further  increased  by 
the  fact  that  the  change  in  coloration 
is  accompanied  by  the  development 
of  a  large  frill  around  the  neck, 
surmounted  by  two  large  tufts  called 
"  cars,"  and  fleshy,  brightly  coloured 
warts  around  the  beak.  The  coloured 
picture  of  the  male  in  its  spring  dress, 
which  will  be  found  on  another  page, 
gives  an  admirable  idea  of  the  typical 
ruff,  but  it  must  necessarily  fail  to  give 
any  indication  of  one  very  n  mark- 
able  fact  concerning  this  frill  and 
the  two  "  ears,"  and  for  this  reason  — 
no  two  individuals  <  -ver  have  these 
peculiar  feathers  of  the  same  colora- 
tion and  pattern.  The  range  of  colour 
is  certainly  not  great  —  the  changes 
being  rung,  so  to  speak,  on  black, 
white,  chestnut,  bay,  and  ash-colour. 
Diversification  is  gained  by  contrasting 
the  "ears"  with  the  frill,  and  adding 
bars  or  streaks  to  the  light  coloration, 
and  purple,  green,  and  violet  reflec- 
tions to  the  dark.  These  ornaments 
are  donned  in  a  surprisingly  short 

space  of  time,  and  are  discarded  as  quickly,  for  they  are  scarcely  completed  by  the  month 

of  May,  and  are  thrown  off  again  at  the  end  of  June.     During  the  time  that  this  resplendent 

livery  is  worn  the  males  engage  in  mimic  battles  —  which  may  occasionally  develop   into  real 

ones  —  arranged  apparently  for  the  edification  of  the  female-,  which,  it  seems,  select  as  partners, 

at    least    for  that  season,  those  which  please  or  excite    most.     This  power  of   pleasing  must 

certainly  be  considerable,  for 

the    ruff     is    a    polygamous 

species. 

Formerly    the    ruff    was 

a  common  bird   in   England, 

but     the     drainage     of     the 

fens    and     persecution     have 

practically  brought  about  its 

extermination. 

At  least  two  groups  of 

plovers    haye    succeeded     in 

reversing  the  usual  order  of 

things  in  the  matter  of  sexual 

plumage.        Ther-e     are     the 

l'!l.\i.\i«i|'i>        which        arc 

Hritish      birds        and      the 

I'\IMI:I>   SMIT.,   in   both  of 

which    the    female     is    more 

brightly   coloured    and    some-  CRK.AT    HlslAKDS 

what   larger   in   si/.e   than    the  Tht  «xk  <,*  tin  rigki  it  "  ,iwi*g  „/" 


.  r.  nw.,  F. z.s.i  [*»/««•»  p*'t 

DENHAM'S   BUSTARD 

TUi  ifeciet,  -when  "  thsfwing  off,"  fillt  tke  gullet  with  air,  having  no  iftdal  air- 
sac  iite  tlit  great  bustard 


/;,..-.  /.:/•.  r. 


!/,„;,/ 


I'lioto  by  Ottintntr  .  luscli iil:.   11,-ilin. 

CROWNED  CRANE. 
Tin-  feathers  of  the  Crt-si  of  this  bird  look  not   unlike  stiff   hairs-. 


AUKS,    GULLS,    AND    PLOVERS 


37 


male.  As  is  the  case  where  this  reversal  occurs,  the  duties  of  incubation  fall  mainly  or 
entirely  upon  the  smaller  and  duller  male.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  furthermore,  that  only 
in  the  phalaropes  is  there  a  seasonal  change  of  plumage:  in  the  painted  snipe  the  same  livery 
is  worn  all  the  year  round. 

Many  of  the  plovers  have  no  seasonal  change  of  plumage,  but  both  male  and  female  wear 
all  the  year  round,  some  a  more  or  less  markedly  bright-coloured  livery,  as  the  DOTTEREL  and 
TURNSTONES,  others  a  more  sober  vestment,  as  the  CURLEWS  and  SNIPE,  for  example. 

The  SNIPE  and  WOODCOCK  may  be  cited  as  especially  instructive  forms  in  this  connection, 
showing,  in  regard  to  the  beak,  for  instance,  undoubted  proof  of  this  structural  modification, 
the  result  of  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  method  of  seeking  their  food.  This  beak  constitutes 
an  organ  of  touch  of  great  sensitiveness,  and  is  used  as  a  probe,  to  thrust  down  into  the  soft 
soil  in  the  search  for  hidden  worms. 


Phala  ti   Billinglan'} 


INDIAN    BUSTARDS 

Bustards  have  1'cry  short  toes,  like  many  other  birds  ivhich  ivalk  much  on  sandy  soil 

Of  the  three  species  of  snipe  which  occur  in  Britain,  probably  the  one  known  as  the  COMMON 
SNIPE  is  most  familiar;  but  it  will,  perhaps,  be  new  to  some  to  learn  that  this  bird  ranks 
as  a  musical  performer,  on  account  of  a  very  extraordinary  "  bleating"  or  "drumming"  noise 
which  it  gives  forth,  especially  during  the  spring  of  the  year  —  the  season  of  courtship.  We 
cannot  describe  this  noise  better,  perhaps,  than  as  an  unusually  high-pitched  "  hum,"  produced, 
it  is  generally  held,  by  wind  driven  between  the  outer  tail-feathers  by  the  rapid  vibration  of 
the  wings  as  the  bird  descends,  or  rather  pitches,  at  a  fearful  pace,  earthwards.  These  feathers 
have  the  shafts  peculiarly  thickened;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  characteristic  sound 
may  be  artificially  produced  if  they  be  fastened  to  a  stick  and  rapidly  whirled  through  the  air. 

The  snipe  and  woodcock  are  not  the  only  members  of  the  Plover  Tribe  whose  beaks  have 
undergone  marked  structural  modifications;  indeed,  many  instances  could  be  cited,  but  two  or 
three  must  suffice.  In  the  AvocET  the  beak  turns  upwards  like  an  awl,  and  the  bird  is  in 
consequence  known  in  some  places  as  the  COBBLER'S-A\VL  DUCK.  In  one  particular,  however, 
the  beak  differs  from  an  awl,  tapering  as  it  does  to  an  exceedingly  fine  point.  When  the 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


bird  feeds,  it  walks  along  in  shallow 
water  with  the  curved  tip  of  the 
beak  resting  on  the  surface  and  the 
head  moving  swiftly  from  side  to 
side,  the  jaws  meanwhile  being 
opened  and  closed  with  exceeding 
rapidity,  and  seizing  instantly  upon 
such  small  Crustacea  and  other 
organisms  as  come  in  their  way. 

. \ltliough  all  the  Plovers  might 
be  described  as  long-legged  birds, 
the  STILTS  are  quite  exceptionally 
so,  and  afford  evidence  of  modifica- 
tion in  another  direction.  Relatively 
to  the  size  of  the  body,  the  stilts 
have  the  longest  legs  of  all  living 
birds.  They  seek  their  prey  by 
wading  in  shallow  water,  like  the 
Avocets,  to  which  they  are  closely 
related.  One  species  —  the  Bi.At  k- 
WINGEDSTILT — occasionally  appears 
in  Britain. 

Some  other  members  of  the 
Plover  Tribe  —  the  J At  AN  \  of  Brazil, 
and  the  \Y.vn-:k-i'!li: A-  \\  i  of  India, 
Ceylon,  and  China,  for  example  — 
have  enormously  long  toes,  as  well 
as  claws  of  great  length. 

These  birds  are  furthermore 
remarkable  for  the  possession  of  for- 
midable weapons  of  offence,  borne  on 
the  wrist-joint  of  the  wing,  in  the 

shape  of  long,  sharp,  and  powerful  spurs.     Similar  weapons  are  carried  by  certain  plovers  —  the 

EGYPTIAN  SITR-\VIM;EU  PLOVER,  for  instance. 


fha,  kj  If.  f. 


STANLEY   CRANE 

Ttii  is  a  Sculh  African  tpecict 


CHAPTER    V 
BUSTARDS  yf\D    CRJXES 

THE  Plover  Tribe,  Bustards,  Cranes,  and  Rails  form  a  large  group  of  diverse  but  probably 
closely  related  forms. 
Of  the  Bustards,  the  most  interesting  and  important  species  is  tlie("iKi:vi  Hi  51  \ui». 
About  a  hundred  years  ago  this  magnificent  bird  might  have  been  seen  any  day  in  such 
favoured  localities  as  the  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire  wolds,  the  Norfolk  ami  Suffolk  "  brecks," 
the  heaths  of  Newmarket,  or  the  downs  of  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire.  It  owes  it-  extermination 
to  several  causes,  foremost  among  which  must  be  reckoned  the  reclaiming  of  waste  land  and 
improved  methods  of  agriculture.  "The  bulk  of  its  body,"  Bays  Professor  Newton.  "  renders  it 
a  conspicuous  and  stately  object;  and  when  on  the  \\ing,  to  which  it  readily  takes,  it-  flight 
is  not  inferior  in  majesty  to  that  of  the  eagle."  The  expanse  of  the  outstretched  wings  of  a 
great  bustard  is  8  feet,  or  even  more;  and  the  weight  of  the  male  may  even  exceed  7,5  Ibs. 
The  female  is  smaller. 


COMMON    CRANE 

39 


4<>         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


To  see  the  great  bustard  in  a  wild  state  to-day,  one 
would  have  to  travel  to  Spain.  And  if  one  could  make 
a  pilgrimage  for  this  purpose  during  the  birds'  courting- 
season,  some  very  wonderful  antics  on  the  part  of  the 
male  would  be  witnessed.  These  antics  make  up  what 
is  really  a  very  elaborate  love-display.  In  this  perform- 
ance the  bird  inflates  his  neck  with  wind,  draws  his 
head  closely  down  on  to  the  back,  throws  up  his  tail, 
so  as  to  make  -the  most  of  the  pure  white  feathers 
underneath,  and  sticks  up  certain  of  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wins  in  a  manner  that  only  a  gnat  bustard  can. 
Certain  long  feathers  projecting  from  each  side  of  the 
head  now  stand  out  like  the  quills  of  the  porcupine, 
forming  a  sort  of  ckeval-de-frise  on  either  side  of  the 
head,  and  complete  the  picture,  which,  in  our  eyes, 
savours  of  the  ludicrous.  The  inflation  of  the  neck  is 
brought  about  by  filling  a  specially  developed  wind-bag 


M«.  *,  StMtirii  Flint,  ft.,  P*n,*', 

MANCHURIAN  CRANE 

Tki  fiikald  flsimagt  of  tkis  iftciei  is  distinctive 

between  the  gullet  and  the  skin 
with  air  through  a  small  hole 
under  the  tongue.  For  manyyears 
it  was  believed  this  bag  was  used 
as  a  sort  of  water-bottle,  to  enable 
the  bird  to  live  amid  the  arid 
wastes  which  were  its  chosen 
haunts. 


.  t,  S.Mault  P* 


'W*  - 


•u 

t 


WATTLED    CRANE 


&  ratttJ  from  ski  ftndtnl  lafftti  of  tki  throat, 
is  a  Sautk  African  iftcits 


COMMON  CRANE 
CRANES. 

Cranes  vary  much  in  general  appearance  Some 
species  have  much  of  the  skin  round  the  head  hare  and 
brilliantly  coloured,  such  as  the  SARI'S  CRANK  of  India 
and  the  CKOUMD  ("RANK. 

The  WIIITK  and  WHOOPING  CKAXF.S  are  birds  of 
wondrous  beauty.  Tlv  first-named  species  has  been  not 
inaptlv  called  the  "lily  of  birds."  The  whole  plumage. 
with  the  exception  of  the  black  quills,  is  white.  The  legs 
are  red.  as  is  also  the  face.  Dr.  ('ours  once  mistook  one 
of  these  birds  the  \Yiioni-i  N(;  CK-  \\i  for  an  antelope. 
He  and  a  companion  saw  what  they  "look  to  lie  an  an- 
telope standing  quietly  feeding,  with  his  broad  white 
stern  inward  us.  and  only  about  ;tx)  yards  oil"  \Ve 
attempted  f,,r  at  least  fifteen  minutes  to  'Mas,''  the  crea- 
ture This  proving  unavailing,  my  friend  proceeded 
to  stalk  the  game,  for  about  half  the  distance  before 


GREBES  AND  DIVERS,   PENGUINS,  TUBE-NOSED   BIRDS 


the  '  antelope  '  unfolded  his  broad  black-tipped 
wings  and  flapped  off,  revealed  at  length  as  a 
whooping  (white)  crane." 

Another  very  remarkable  species  is  the 
CROWNED  CRANE.  This  is  an  African  species,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  tuft  of  curiously  modified 
feathers  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  coloured 
plate  gives  a  good  idea  of  its  general  appearance. 


THE  SERIEMA 

This  is  a  very  hawklike-looking  bird;  indeed, 
by  some   ornithologists  it  has  been  regarded  as 

(closely   allied    to   the    Hawks    and    Eagles,    and 
ijjjr  ^f\  more   especially   to   the    Secretary-bird.      Really, 

'-^^^^NE  however,  it  is  a  very  ancient  kind  of  crane. 

the  TRUMPETERS,  the  COURLANS,  the  KAGU, 
and  the  SUN-BITTERN  are  other  ornithological 
puzzles.  Concerning  the  precise  affinities  of  these 
birds  much  is  yet  to  be  learnt;  they  are,  how- 
ever, undoubtedly  related  to  the  Cranes.  The 
last  mentioned  is  a  small  bird,  with  wonderfully  beautiful  wings,  which  it  displays  with  great 
effect  to  its  mate  during  the  courting-season. 


Phato  by  If.  F.  I'  zs"i}  [Li/ghle 

GREAT    CRESTED    GREBE 

Young  grebes  in  do'wn  are  beautifully  striped 


CHAPTER    VI 

GREBES  AND   DWERS,   PENGUINS,   AND    TUBE-NOSED    BIRDS 


THE    GREBES    AND    DIVERS 


THEGrebesandDivers 
are  representatives 
of  an  exceedingly 
ancient  type,  and  are  in  many 
ways  besides  very  interesting. 
BotharecommonBritish  birds. 
The  greater  part  of  their  lives 
is  spent  upon  the  water,  and 
to  suit  this  aquatic  existence 
their  bodies  are  specially 
modified.  One  of  the  principal 
features  of  this  modification 
is  seen  in  the  position  of  the 
legs.  These,  by  a  shortening 
of  the  thigh-bones  in  the 
grebes,  leave  the  body  so  far 
back  that  when  the  bird  walks 
the  body  is  held  vertically. 
With  the  clivers  walking  has 
become  an  impossibility,  and 
they  can  only  move  on  land 
on  their  bellies,  pushing 
themselves  along  with  the 
feet.  Both  grebes  and  divers 


Ph 


BLACK-THROATED    DIVERS 

These  'very  handsome  birds  breed  in  Scotland 


42         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


are  expert  swimmers,  and  dive  with  the 
greatest  ease,  remaining  long  under  water. 
The  grebes  haunt  ponds,  lakes,  and  broads ; 
the  divers  prefer  the  open  sea.  Both  feed 
on  fish. 

GREBES 

Of  the  numerous  species  of  grebe,  the 
most  familiar  are  the  GREAT  CRESTED  Gki  i  i: 
and  the  little  DAHCHICK.  The  former  has 
suffered  grievous  persecution  for  the  sake  of 
its  beautiful  breast-feathers,  which  Fashion 
decreed  should  be  worn  by  the  gentler  sex 
in  the  form  of  muffs  or  hats.  Thus  a  price 
was  set  upon  the  head  of  this  beautiful  and 
harmless  bird,  and  its  ranks  were  speedily 
thinned.  Some  species  wear  during  the 
nesting-season  beautiful  chestnut  or  golden 
"  ears,"  "  horns,"  or  "  frills"  on  the  head  and 
neck.  The  EARED  GREBE  is  especially  mag- 
nificent at  this  time. 

DIVERS 

These,  as  already  remarked,  are  sea- 
loving  birds,  but  they  breed  inland  on  the 
shores  of  lakes.  There  are  not  many  species 
of  divers,  but,  like  the  grebes,  they  assume 
a  special  dress  during  the  nesting-season,  more 
beautiful  than  the  winter  dress. 

THE    PENGUINS 

TllE  PENGUINS  may  justly  be  called  won- 
derful birds,  and  they  arc  undoubtedly  of  very 
ancient  descent.  For  counties*  generations  the 
sea  has  been  their  home  and  refuge,  and,  in 

«-.*, „:  P.  D^.,  ,.*,.]  [«,..,..  M         consequence,  flight  has  been  abandoned  in  ex- 

BLACK-FOOTED  PENGUIN  ?"*&  for  increased  swimming-powers,  which 

have  been  gained  bv  transforming  the  wing 

Ttn  bird,  alw  katvia  ai  ike   Cafe  or  Jackass-fenruin,  ireeJt   in          •  ...  ....  .  ,-  .        '. 

kurrw,  or  under  UJgei  cf  rock  iiitoa  paddle.      1  his  transformation  lias  resulted 

in  Battening  the  wing-bones  —and  so  increas- 
ing the  surface  of  the  hand  and  arm  whilst  reducing  its  thickness  ami  the  suppression  of  the 
quill-feathers.  The  result  is  a  blade-like  paddle  closely  resembling  the  paddle  of  the  whale, 
the  turtle,  or  the  extinct  fish-lizards.  XYith  this  organ  they  cleave  their  way  through  the  water, 
often  far  below  the  surface,  in  pursuit  of  food,  just  as  of  old  their  ancestors  did  through  the 
air.  In  other  diving-birds  the  wings  arc  kept  closely  pressed  to  the  side  of  the  liody  when 
under  water,  whilst  the  locomotion  is  effected  by  the  feet.  The  penguin's  legs,  in  consequence 
of  diminished  use,  have  shortened  considerably.  Hut  besides  the  wings  and  legs,  the  feathery 
covering  has  also  undergone  a  certain  amount  of  change.  This  h.is  been  effected  by  increasing 
the  size  of  the  shaft  of  the  feather  and  diminishing  the  vane;  as  a  result,  on  the  front  part 
of  the  wings  these  feathers  look  more  like  scales  than  feathers. 

Professor  Moselev  has  vividly  described  the  appearance  of  a  flock  of  penguins  at  sea.     He 
writes  from  Tristan  d'Actmhn:  "As  we  approached  the  shore,  I  was  astonished  at  seeing  a 


GREBES    AND    DIVERS,  PENGUINS,  TUBE-NOSED    BIRDS         43 


shoal  of  what  looked  like  extremely  active,  very  small  porpoises  or  dolphins.  .  .  .  They  showed 
black  above  and  white  beneath,  and  came  along  in  a  shoal  of  fifty  or  more  .  .  .  towards  the 
shore  at  a  rapid  pace,  by  a  series  of  successive  leaps  out  of  the  water  and  leaps  into  it 
again.  .  .  .  Splash,  splash,  went  this  marvellous  shoal  of  animals,  till  they  went  splash  through 
the  surf  on  to  the  black,  stony  beach,  and  then  struggled  and  jumped  up  amongst  the  boulders 
and  revealed  themselves  as  wet  and  dripping  penguins." 

Like  their  relatives  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  penguins  breed  in  huge  communities  known 
as  "  rookeries,"  a  rookery  being  peopled  by  tens  of  thousands.  Their  nests,  made  of  small 
stones,  are  placed  among  the  tall  grass  and  reached  by  beaten  pathways,  exceedingly  difficult 
to  walk  through.  Professor  Moseley  thus  describes  a  "  rookery  "  :  "  At  first  you  t  /  to  avoid  the 
nests,  but  soon  find  that  impossible ;  then,  maddened  almost  by  the  pain  [for  they  bite  furiously 
at  the  legs],  stench,  and  noise,  you  have  recourse  to  brutality.  Thump,  thump,  goes  your  stick, 
and  at  each  blow  down  goes  a  bird.  Thud,  thud,  you  hear  from  the  men  behind  you  as  they 
kick  the  birds  right  and  left  off  the  nests;  and  so  you  go  for  a  bit  —  thump,  smash,  whack, 
thud,  '  caa,  caa,  urr,  urr,'  and  the  path  behind  you  is  strewn  with  the  dead  and  dying  and 
bleeding.  Of  course,  it  is  horribly  cruel  thus  to  kill  whole  families  of  innocent  birds,  but  it 
is  absolutely  necessary.  One  must  cross  the  rookeries  in  order  to  explore  the  island  at  all, 
and  collect  the  plants,  or  survey  the  coasts  from  the  heights." 

Penguins  feed  principally  on  Crustacea,  molluscs  ("  shell-fish  "),  and  small  fish,  varied  with 
a  little  vegetable  matter.  Although  the  legs  are  very  short,  penguins  yet  walk  with  ease,  and 
can,  on  occasion,  run  with  considerable  speed.  It  would  appear,  however,  as  if  the  largest  of 
the  tribe,  the  EMPEROR-PENGUIN,  had  become  somewhat  too  bulky  to  run  ;  for  when  speed  is 
necessary  it  lies  down  upon  the  snow  and  propels  itself  with  its  feet,  traveling,  it  is  said,  in 
this  manner  with  incredible  speed. 

Penguins,  though  confined  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  enjoy  a  wide  range  and  every 
variety  of  climate.  They  are  found  on  the  Antarctic  ice,  on  the  shores  of  South  Africa, 
South  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  inhabit  many  islands  of  the  southern  seas, 


>~—^ 


BLACK-FOOTED    PENGUINS    BATHING 

The  name  Jackass  is  bcstoiued  because  the  noise  made  by  these  birds  closely  resembles  the  bray  of  a  donkey 


44 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


r  >..<•*,  u:  p. 


,,  F.Z  «.] 

KING-PENGUIN 

Tkit  it  oat  of  tht  largest  of  tkt  Penguins 


notably  the  Falklands,  Ker- 
guelen,  and  Tristan  d'Acunha. 
In  size  penguins  vary  greatly. 
The  largest  is  the  EMPEROR' 

ri:M;ri\  of  the  Antarctic  seas ; 
scarcely  smaller  is  the  KIM,- 
n  ITOUIN  of  Kerguclcn  Island. 
The  emperor-penguin  stands 
some  3.}  feet  high,  and  may 
weigh  as  much  as  78  Ibs.  The 
GENTU  I'l  \';u\,or"Johnny" 
of  the  sailors,  is  next  in  si/e, 
being  but  little  smaller  than 
the  king-penguin  ;  this  sp. 
inhabits  Kerguelen  Inland  and 
the  Falklands.  The  CKI  >ri :n 

Pi  \«.i  INS,  or  ROCK- Ti-Ks, 

of  which  there  are  several 
species, are  muchsmaller ;  they 
occur  in  the  Falkland  Islands, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  Antaiv- 
tic.  The  South  African  form 
is  known  as  the  HI.AI  K-I  • « >  n.i  • 
1'ENorix.  Its  nearest  allies  are  HUMBOLDT'S  FENCITX  of  Western  South  America,  and  the 
JACKASS-PENGUIN  of  the  Falklands.  The  smallest  of  all  is  the  little  Bi.ui:  PKMii'ix  of  South 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  standing  only  17  inches  high. 

THE    TUBE-NOSED    BIRDS 

UNTIL  recently  these  birds  were  believed  to  be  closely  related  to  the  Gulls,  but  it  is 
now  generally  agreed  that  they  are  really  distant  relatives  of  the  Divers  and  Penguins.  The 
association  with  the  Gulls  was  pardonable,  for  they  certainly  bear  a  superficial  resemblance 
to  them.  The  birds  now  under  discussion  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  ("mils  by  the 
fact  that  the  nostrils  open  into  a  tube  on  the  top  of  the  beak,  or  a  pair  of  tubes,  one  on 
either  side— hence  the  name  of  the  group.  Like  the  Gulls,  they  are  sea-birds  and  web-footed. 
Their  young  are  downy  and  for  a  time  helpless.  One  egg  is  laid,  which  is  white,  and  in  some 
cases  spotted  with  red  at  the  large  end.  As  a  rule  no  nest  is  made,  but  the  egg  laid  on  the 
bare  ground,  in  a  hole  or  burrow  or  in  crevices  of  rocks.  The  Albatrosses  build  a  nest  of 
earth,  tufts  of  grass,  and  moss,  the  whole  structure  raising  the  sitting-bird  well  above  the 
ground.  The  Giant  and  Fulmar  Petrels  also  build  nests.  The  albatross  is  said  by  Professor 
Moseley  to  hold  the  egg  in  a  pouch  while  sitting,  as  in  the  case  of  the  king-penguin.  The 
nature  of  this  pouch  has  never  been  described. 

Although  occurring  in  the  seas  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  Southern  Hemisphere  must 
be  regarded  as  their  headquarters,  since  here  the  greatest  number  of  spe.  i.  -  are  found.  All  are 
carnivorous,  and  —  with  the  exception  of  one  small  group,  the  Diving-petrels  of  the  Strait  of 
Magellan — are  birds  of  powerful  flight.  A  large  number  of  -pccies  belong  to  this  group,  but 
an  enumeration  of  all  would  be  wearisome.  A  few  of  the  more  striking  have,  then-lore,  be.-n 
selected  for  description. 

Till-:  Ai  i;\  1 1;<  »SS1  -< 

It  was  an  albatross  which  brought  such  woe   upon  the  ancient  mariner  whoso  pitiful   story 
o    feelingly  told    by  Coleridge.      Hut    the    tables   arc   occasionally   turned,   for   men    falling 
overboard    in   southern   seas   are    liable  to   be  attacked    by  the-e  powerful  giants.      The   . ilb.it: 
is  mostly  renowned   for  its  majestic   flight.     Mr.  Fronde  has  given  us  a  wonderful  description 


GREBES    AND    DIVERS,  PENGUINS,  TUBE-NOSED    BIRDS         45 

of  this  flight,  which  is  quoted  with  approval  by  Professor  Newton.  It  runs  as  follows:  "The 
albatross  wheels  in  circles  round  and  round,  and  for  ever  round  the  ship —  now  far  behind,  now 
sweeping  past  in  a  long,  rapid  curve,  like  a  perfect  skater  on  an  untouched  field  of  ice. 
There  is  no  effort;  watch  as  closely  as  you  will,  you  rarely  or  never  see  a  stroke  of  the 
mighty  pinion.  The  flight  is  generally  near  the  water,  often  close  to  it.  You  lose  sight  of 
the  bird  as  he  disappears  in  the  hollow  between  the  waves,  and  catch  him  again  as  he  rises 
over  the  crest ;  but  how  he  rises  and  whence  comes  the  propelling  force  is  to  the  eye 
inexplicable :  he  alters  merely  the  angle  at  which  the  wings  are  inclined ;  usually  they  are 
parallel  to  the  water  and  horizontal ;  but  when  he  turns  to  ascend  or  makes  a  change  in  his 
direction,  the  wings  then  point  at  an  angle,  one  to  the  sky,  the  other  to  the  water." 

Professor  Htitton,  speaking  with  similar  enthusiasm  of  the  wonderful  flight,  gives  us, 
however,  another  side  to  the  picture.  "  Suddenly,"  he  says,  "  he  sees  something  floating  on  the 
water,  and  prepares  to  alight;  but  how  changed  he  now  is  from  the  noble  bird  but  a  moment 
before,  all  grace  and  symmetry !  He  raises  his  wings,  his  head  goes  back,  and  his  back  goes 
in  ;  down  drop  two  enormous  webbed  feet,  straddled  out  to  their  full  extent;  and  with  a  hoarse 
croak,  between  the  cry  of  a  raven  and  that  of  a  sheep,  he  falls  '  souse '  into  the  water.  Here 
he  is  at  home  again,  breasting  the  waves  like  a  cork.  Presently  he  stretches  out  his  neck,  and 
with  great  exertion  of  his  wings  runs  along  the  top  of  the  water  for  seventy  or  eighty  yards, 
until,  at  last,  having  got  sufficient  impetus,  he  tucks  up  his  legs,  and  is  once  more  fairly 
launched  in  the  air." 

For  the  wonderful  photographs  of  the  albatross  at  home  we  are  indebted  to  the  Hon.  Walter 


NESTING    ALBATROSSES    ON    LAYSAN    ISLAND 

This  colony  ivas  oj  enormous  si-zt,  and  included  thousands  of  birds 


46        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Rothschild.  They  are  from  his  book  on  the  avifauna 
of  Laysan  Island,  in  the  North  Pacific.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  albatrosses  and  other  birds,  traders 
have  been  attracted  to  Laysan  for  the  sake  of  the 
guano  deposits.  The  birds  were  strictly  protected 
during  the  occupation  of  Mr.  IVccce,  but  when  he 
left  they  had  no  friend  to  shield  them,  and  their 
eggs  were  taken  in  cart-loads,  as  the  accompanying 
photograph  shows. 

When  an  albatross  makes  love,  Professor  Moseley 
tells  us,  he  stands  "by  the  female  on  the  not, 
raises  his  wings,  spreads  his  tail  and  elevates  it, 
throws  up  his  head  with  the  bill  in  the  air,  or 
stretches  it  straight  out  forwards  as  far  as  he  can, 
and  then  utters  a  curious  cry.  .  .  .  Whilst  uttering 
the  cry  the  bird  sways  his  neck  up  and  down.  The 
female  responds  with  a  similar  note,  and  they  bring 
the  tips  of  their  bills  lovingly  together.  This  sort 
of  thing  goes  on  for  half  an  hour  or  so  at  a  time." 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  albatross. 
The  largest  measures  over  1 1  feet  across  the  out- 
stretched wings.  Theyare  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
seas. 

After  the  Albatrosses,  the  largest  bird  of  the 
group  is  the  GIANT  PETREL.  The  sailors  call 
it  "  Break-bones,"  "Nelly,"  or  "  Stinker."  In  habits 
it  differs  much  from  its  aristocratic  relative  the 

albatross,  haunting  the  coasts  in  search  of  dead    seals  and  whales,  and  the  bodies  of  other 

birds.  Professor  Moseley  aptly 

likens  it  to  the  vulture :  "  It 

soars  all  day  along  the  coast 

on  the  look-out  for  food.     No 

sooner    is   an   animal    killed 

than    numbers    appear   as    if 

by  magic,  and  the  birds  are 

evidently  well  acquainted  with 

the    usual     proceedings     of 

sealers,    who    kill    the    sea- 
elephant,    take    off   the   skin 

and    blubber,  and    leave    the 

carcase.     The     birds     gorge 

themselves  with  food,  just  like 

the   vultures,    and    are    then 

unable  to  fly.     I  came  across 

half    a   dozen    at    Christmas 

Harbour    in    this    condition. 

We     landed     just     opposite 

them;  they  began  to  run  to 

get    out    of    the    way.     The 

men  chased  them ;  they  ran 

off.  spreading  their  wings,  but 

unable  to  rise.  Some  struggled 


Unit  h  D-  !••  «•«•/]  V.lknin, 

WHITE-CAPPED  ALBATROSS  ON   EGG 

Pnftuor  Mauley  dtseriktt  the  fgg  of  tke  albatroa  as  bring 
held  in  a  ion  if  pouch 


B   ftrmiiiitn  »'  iht  If 


CARTING    ALBATROSS    EGGS    ON     Mil      IM    \M>    <>!•     I.AVSAN 
/tt  out  timt  ikta  birds  ll-irt  froHcleJ;   at  MI'J  faolc^rafk  Inlifrs,  tliis  is  no 


ikt  cast 


ROCK-HOPPER    PENGUIN 

The  name  Rock-hop fer  is  given  in  allusion  to  the  habit  of  hopping  o-ver  boulder i  of  rock 

47 


fhut  0) 


WHITE   STORKS 

Tkt  ri^hi-liand  jigure  ihtrui!  ike  bird  mating  the  curious  ctapptring  -u'.'.h  in  beeJ> 


\VIII  IK    STORK 

A  fartnt  kirj  returning  ivitk  *  frof  far  in  young 
48 


GREBES    AND    DIVERS,  PENGUINS,    TUBE-NOSED  BIRDS         49 


into  the  water  and  swam  away,  but  two  went  running  on,  gradually  disgorging  their  food, 
in  the  utmost  hurry,  until  they  were  able  to  rise,  when  they  made  off  to  sea." 

The  FULMAR  PETREL  is  a  British  bird.  On  St.  Kilda,  Professor  Newton  tells  us,  from 
18,000  to  20,000  young  are  killed  in  one  week  in  August,  the  only  time  when,  by  the  custom 
of  the  community,  they  are  allowed  to  be  taken.  These,  after  the  oil  is  extracted,  serve  the 
islanders  for  winter  focd. 

The  STORM-PETREL  is  a  small  bird  which  breeds  abundantly  in  St.  Kilda  and  the  Orkneys, 
and  so  fearless  that  it  will  allow  itself  to  be  taken  from  the  nest  by  hand.  Immediately 
this  is  done,  the  bird  vomits  a  quantity  of  pure  oil  from  its  mouth.  The  wild  fowlers 
make  use  of  this  habit,  capturing  the  bird,  collecting  the  oil,  and  setting  the  prisoner  free 
again.  A  story  is  related  of  a  storm-petrel  which  was  kept  in  a  cage  for  three  weeks.  It 
was  fed  by  smearing  its  breast  with  oil,  which  the  bird  swallowed  by  drawing  the  feathers 
separately  through  its  beak.  These  birds  are  popularly  supposed  to  be  seen  only  before 
stormy  weather,  and  therefore  are  not  welcomed  by  sailors,  who  call  them  "  Devil's  Birds  "  and 
"  Witches."  This  bird  seems  to  commend  itself  to  some  palates  ;  thus  the  late  Mr.  Seebohm  says : 
"  Cooked  on  toast,  like  snipe,  we  found  them  delicious  eating,  very  rich,  but  not  at  all  fishy." 

We  cannot  refrain  from  a  brief  mention  of  the  remarkable  little  DIVING-PETREL—  remarkable 
because  of  its  unlikeness  to  all  the  other  Petrels  and  its  strong  resemblance  to  the  Auks. 
But  its  tubular  nostrils  and  certain  anatomical  characters  proclaim  its  true  affinities.  "  This 
is  a  petrel,"  says  Professor  Moseley,  "  that  has  given  up  the  active  aerial  habits  of  its  allies, 
and  has  taken  to  diving,  and  has  become  specially  modified  by  natural  selection  to  suit  it 
for  this  changed  habit,  though  still  a  petrel  in  essential  structure."  On  two  occasions  Professor 
Moseley  met  with  them  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  describes  the  water  as  being  covered 
with  these  birds  in  flocks  extending  over  acres,  which  were  made  black  with  them. 


T 


CHAPTER    VII 

STORKS,  HERONS,  AND  PELICAN  TRIBE 

HE  Storks,  Herons,  and  Pelican  Tribe  form  a  group  of  closely  allied  but  externally  very 
unlike  birds,  distantly  related  to  the  Petrels  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Cranes  and 
Hawk  Tribe  on  the  other. 

THE  STORKS 


There  are  few  birds  which  have  figured 
more  prominently  in  the  realms  of  fairy- 
tale and  fable  than  the  WHITE  STORK.  To- 
day it  is  almost  universally  held  in  affectionate 
regard,  and  in  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Germany 
is  afforded  the  strictest  protection,  every 
effort  being  made,  in  localities  where  it  is 
plentiful,  to  induce  it  to  build  its  nest 
upon  the  house-roof.  Sometimes,  to  effect 
this,  its  fondness  for  a  stage  of  some  sort 
being  known,  a  cart-wheel  is  set  up,  and 
this  generally  proves  successful,  the  grateful 
bird  erecting  thereon  its  nest.  Once 
occupied,  it  may  be  held  by  several  genera- 
tions of  tenants  ;  and  year  by  year  additions 
are  made  to  the  nest,  so  that  the  original 
shallow  structure  at  last  attains  a  height 
of  several  feet.  The  material  used  in  its 


FULMAR    PETREL 

Like  the  vulture,  this  bird  nvill  so  gorge  itself  with  food  as  to  he  unable^ 
fur  a  time,  to  fy 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


construction  consists  of  sticks  and  other  substances.     He  considers   himself  a  fortunate  nun 
indeed  who  can  boast  a  stork's  nest  on  his  house. 

To  show  how  widespread  is  the  regard  in  which  this  bird  is  held,  we  may  mention  th.it 
in  Morocco,  according  to  Colonel  Irby,  "  almost  every  Moorish  hovel  has  its  stork's  nest  on  ihe 
top,  a  pile  of  sticks  lined  with  grass  and  palmetto-fibre,"  and  he  goes  on  to  relate  that  in 
"  Morocco  and  Fez,  and  some  other  large  towns  in  the  Moorish  Kmpire,  there  is  a  regular 
storks'  hospital,  and  that,  should  one  be  in  any  way  injured  or  fall  from  the  nest,  it  is  sent 
to  this  institution,  or  rather  enclosure,  which  is  kept  up  by  subscriptions  from  wealthy  Moors, 
who  regard  the  stork  as  a  sacred  bird." 

Though  the  nest  appears  to  be  generally  placed  upon  buildings,  it  is,  when  these  fail, 
built  in  trees,  and  the  selection  of  such  sites  must  be  regarded  as  representing  the  original 
practice  of  the  species. 

The  stork  is  one  of  the  very  few  birds  which  appear  to  be  quite  dumb.  It  supplies  the 
want  of  a  voice  by  a  very  remarkable  clapping  noise  made  by  the  long,  horny  beak.  Hut  even 
this  noise  is  rarely  made,  and  appears  to  be  prompted  by  unusual  excitement.  "During 
the  breeding-season,"  Mr.  Howard  Saundcrs  tells  us,  "storks  keep  up  a  clappering  with  their 
bills,  and  this  sound  may  frequently  be  heard  proceeding  from  a  number  of  birds  circling  in 
the  air  at  such  a  height  as  to  be  almost  invisible." 

The  affection  displayed  by  storks  for  their  young  is  proverbial.  They  feed  them  In- 
thrusting  their  beaks  down  into  the  gaping  little  mouths,  and  injecting  the  half-digested 
remains  of  their  last  meal,  which  may  represent  reptile,  frog,  or  fish,  varied  by  a  small 
mammal,  young  bird,  worms,  or  insects. 

The  white  stork  is  a  really  beautiful  bird.  Except  the  quill-  and  some  of  the  smaller 
wing-feathers,  which  are  black,  the  plumage  is  snow-white,  whilst  the  bill  and  the  legs  are 
bright  red.  Like  the  swallow,  it  performs  extensive  migrations,  traveling  in  flocks,  number- 
ing many  thousands,  at  an  immense  height. 

Scarcely  less  beautiful  is  the  Mi  ACK  STORK, 
and,  like  its  white-plumaged  ally,  it  is  also 
an  occasional  visitant  to  Hritain.  It  is  a 
handsome  bird,  having  the  plumage  of  the  upper- 
parts  black,  richly  glossed  with  purple,  copper, 
and  green;  the  under-parts  pure  white;  and  the 
legs  and  beak  red.  Hut  it  is  far  less  sociable, 
and  consequently  less  known,  than  the  white 
stork,  shunning  the  haunts  of  men.  and  seeking 
seclusion  for  its  nest  in  the  lofty  trees  of  large 
forests. 

The  largest  members  of  the  Stork  Tribe 
are  the  Anjf  i  A\  i  •- 1<  IRKS  and  J.\I;IRI  s.  'UK- 
adjutants  are  also,  to  our  eyes  at  least,  singu- 
larly ugly  birds.  In  spite  of  this  very  natural 
disadvantage,  they  have  won  a  very  high  place 
in  the  regard  of  tin-  people  among  whom  they 
dwell,  on  account  of  the  fact  that,  both  in 
Africa  and  India,  they  perform,  with  the 
vultures,  the  work  of  scavengers.  Yet  there 
is  snmething  of  quaintnes>  about  thc-c  birds, 
if  they  are  watched  from  a  di-tance  too  great 
to  reveal  the  character  which  imparts  the  ugli- 

ness  to  which  we  have  referred,  and  their  actions 
I    in. MUD   SIOKK  not  seldom  border  on  the  grotesque.     The  name 

A  ran  iftciei,  rtmarkablt  fir  t»i  kugt  tisa  of  iht  ttai  Adjutant      has      been      bestowed      upon     them     OH 


STORKS,    HERONS,    AND     PELICAN    TRIBE  51 


account  of  the  peculiar  gait,  which  bears  a  fanciful  resem- 
blance to  the  measured  pacing  of  an  officer  on  parade.  Like 
all  the  Storks,  they  have  large  bodies  and  very  long  legs,  but 
they  have  outstripped  all  their  relatives  in  the  enormous  size 
of  the  beak.  The  features  which  have  earned  this  unenviable 
reputation  for  ugliness  are  the  peculiarly  unkempt  and 
unwashed  appearance  of  the  head  and  neck.  These  are  but 
scantily  clothed  in  very  shabby,  brown-looking  down-feathers; 
and  the  neck  is  made  still  more,  we  might  almost  say, 

repulsive  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  bare  pouch,  which  can 
be  distended  with  air  to  an 
enormous  size  at  will.  The 
Arabs, on  accountof  this  pouch, 
call  the  species  resident  with 
them  "  The  Father  of  the 
Leather  Bottle."  Some,  how- 
ever, say  that  the  correct  trans- 
lation  of  the  native  name 


Phut  by  W.  F.  Dande,  f.Z.S. 

ADJUTANT-STORK 

The  curious  'wind  hag  ii  <well  sboivn 

would  be  "  The  Father  of  the 
Beak."  But  it  is  not  only  on 
account  of  their  scavenging 
propensities  that  the  adjutants 
are  esteemed,  for  it  is  from 
the  under  tail-coverts  of  these 
birds  that  the  much-prized 
44  marabou  "  or  "  comercolly  " 
feathers  arc. obtained  — at  least 
the  finest  kinds ;  for  some 

appear  to  be  furnished  by  that  chief  of  scavengers,  the  vulture. 
More  precious  still  "  is  the  celebrated  stone  called  Zahir 
mora,  or  poison-killer,  of  great  virtue  and  repute  as  an  anti- 
dote to  all  kinds  of  poison,"  to  be  procured  only  by  splitting 
open  the  head  of  the  bird  before  death.  Needless  to  say, 
the  existence  of  this  stone  lives  only  in  popular  superstition, 
though  how  many  poor  birds  have  fallen  victims  thereto  is 
not  pleasant  to  contemplate. 

Adjutants  choose  almost  inaccessible  pinnacles  of  rock  on 


Phtli  kj  W.  F.   Dandu,  F.Z.S. 

ADJUTANT-STORK 

This    sho-ivs    the    bird    in   a    rather    unusual 
attitu  de 


Photo  ty  Scholastic  Phote.  Co, 

JABIRU    STORK 

This  bird  stands  between  <f  and  ^  feet 


52         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


which  to  build  their  nests,  though  they  sometimes  nest  in  trees.  From  two  to  four  white 
eggs  are  laid,  from  which,  if  all  goes  well,  as  many  young,  covered  with  fluffy  white  down, 
are  hatched. 

The  JABIRUS  are  distant  relatives  of,  and  scarcely  inferior  in  size  to,  the  Adjutants.  There 
are  three  species,  one  occurring  in  the  Indian  Peninsula,  New  Guinea,  and  Australia,  one 
in  Africa,  and  one  in  South  America.  It  is  to  this  last  species  that  the  name  Jabiru 
correctly  applies.  Furthermore,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  one  of  the  handsonu ->t 
of  its  tribe.  The  whole  plumage  is  pure  white,  and  the  upper-parts  are  made  additionally 
resplendent  by  an  indescribable  satin-like  gloss.  The  beautiful  whiteness  of  its  plum.i-r  U 
enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  head  and  neck,  bill  and  feet,  are  jet-black.  Some  would  give 
the  palm  of  beauty  to  the  AFRICAN  SADDLE-BILLED  STORK.  Black  and  white,  as  in  the 
American  form,  are  the  contrasting  "  colours  "  ;  but  the  plumage  of  the  body,  instead  of  being 
pure  white,  is  plentifully  enriched  with  black,  with  beautiful  purple  reflections. 


fhut  tj  I).  Li 


FLAMINGOES 

In  flight  the  long  neck  and  legt  are  fully  extended,  giving  the  bird  a  very  remarkable  apfearancc 

More  or  less  nearly  allied  to  the  Storks  are  several  species  familiar  enough  to  the 
professional  ornithologist,  but  not  very  well  known  generally.  One  of  the  rarest  and  most 
interesting  of  these  is  the  WHALE-HEADED  or  SHOK-I:IU  u>  SIOKK  of  the  Nile,  remarkable 
for  its  enormous  boat-shaped  bill.  More  common  but  equally  interesting  are  the  beautiful 
FLAMINGOES.  Apart  from  the  brilliancy  of  their  colour,  the  most  noticeable  feature  of  these 
birds  is  the  curious  beak,  which  is  bent  downwards  at  a  sharp  angle,  and  provided  on  its 
inside  with  horny  plates  resembling  those  of  the  Ducks  and  Swans.  The  tongue  of  this  bird, 
unlike  that  of  the  Stork  Tribe  generally,  is  thick  and  fleshy,  and  also  resembles  that  of 
the  duck. 

The  flamingo  is  the  only  member  of  the  Stork  Tribe  which  builds  a  mud-nest.  Its 
foundation  laid  often  in  as  much  as  15  inches  of  water,  and  rising  above  the  Mirfarc  from 
6  to  8  inches,  with  a  diameter  at  the  top  of  15  inches,  it  forms  a  pile  of  no  mean  size. 
Strangely  enough,  though  these  birds  are  never  so  happy  as  when  wading  "knee"  deep  in 
water,  yet  after  the  construction  of  the  nest  the  incubation  of  the  eggs  is  delayed  so  long 


STORKS,    HERONS,    AND     PELICAN     TRIBE  53 


Phclo  ty  C--arhs  Knight 

FLAMINGOES 

On  account  of  the  swan-like  neck  and  "  strainers  "  along  the  edges  of  the  beak,  these  birds  have 
been  regarded  'as  long-legged  members  of  the  Duck  Tribe,  but  they  seem  more  nearly  related  to  the 


that  before  they  are  hatched 
the  water  has  disappeared, 
leaving  a  burning  plain 
of  sun-baked  mud.  On 
the  top  of  this  nest 
the  parent  sits  with  its 
long  neck  neatly  curled 
away  among  the  back- 
feathers,  with  its  long  legs 
doubled  up,  and  projecting 
behind  her  for  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  tail. 
Until  quite  recently  it  was 
believed  that  the  bird  incu- 
bated its  eggs  by  sitting 
astride  the  nest,  the  length 
of  the  legs  forbidding  any 
other  position :  this  has 
now  been  proved  beyond 
cavil  to  be  an  entirely 
erroneous  opinion. 

The    eggs,    two    in 
number,  are  peculiar  in  that 

they  are  encased  in  a  thick  outer  chalky  coat,  which  on  removal  reveals  a  greenish-blue  shell. 
The   characteristic  crooked  beak  of  the  adult  is  not  at  all  apparent  in  the  young    bird, 

and   only   appears   as   it   approaches   maturity. 

The  huge  flocks  in  which  these   birds    consort    are    graphically    described    by    Mr.    Abel 

Chapman  as  follows :    "  In  herds  of  300  to  400,  several  of  which  are  often  in  sight  at  once, 

they  stand  feeding  in  the  open  water,  all  their  heads  under,  greedily  tearing  up  the   grasses 

and  water-plants  from  the  bottom.     On  approaching  them,  which  can  only  be  done  by  extreme 

caution,  their  silence  is   first 

broken  by  the  sentries,  who 

commence  walking  away  with 

low  croaks  ;  then  hundreds  of 

necks    rise    at    once    to    full 

extent,  every    bird    gaggling 

its     loudest,    as     they     walk 

obliquely  away,  looking  back 

overtheir  shoulders,  as  though 

to  take   stock   of  the   extent 

of  the    danger.       Pushing    a 

few  yards  forward,  up  they  all 

rise,    and    a    more    beautiful 

sight  cannot  be  imagined  than 

the  simultaneous  spreading  of 

the    crimson    wings,    flashing 

against  the  sky  like  a  gleam 

of     rosy     light.       In     many 

respects   these    birds    bear   a 

strong  resemblance  to  geese. 


Like    them,    flamingoes    feed 
by  day ;   and  great  quantities 


t  fy  If.  P.   Dartdt,  I'.'/,  .«. 

EUROPEAN    FLAMINGOES 

These  birds  breed  in  the  Si.uth  of  France  and  Sfain 


54 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


of  grass,  etc.,  are  always  floating  about  the  muddy  water  when  a  herd  has  been  feeding.  Their 
cry  is  almost  indistinguishable  from  the  gaggling  of  geese,  and  they  fly  in  the  same  catenarian 
formations." 

The  SPOONBILLS  and  IBISES  also  belong  to  the  Stork  Tribe.  The  former  are  remarkable 
chiefly  for  the  strange  spoon-shaped  bill :  one  species,  a  few  hundred  years  ago,  nested  in 
Kngland.  This  remarkable  beak  is  associated  with  a  peculiar  method  of  feeding,  well  described 
by  the  late  Mr.  Wolley.  During  the  operation,  he  says,  "  the  beak  was  passed  sideways 
through  the  water,  and  kept  open  till  something  palatable  came  within  its  grasp;  but  the 
action  by  which  the  bird  effected  this  was  most  singular;  for  instead  of  turning  onlv  its 
head  and  neck,  it  turned  its  whole  body  from  left  to  right  and  from  right  to  left,  like 
the  balance-wheel  of  a  watch;  its  neck  stretched  out  and  its  beak  immersed  perpendicularlv 
to  about  half  its  depth :  this  semicircular  action  was  kept  up  with  great  vigour  and  at 
a  tolerably  quick  march." 


M«.  */  W.  f.  Dtnd;  F.Z.S. 

SPOONBILL 

So  called  an  account  of  in  tfoon-ihafed  till 


,,  r.7.  *. 

SACRKD    IKis 

Sacred  ta  the  ancient  Egyptians,  it  is  tnnvn  ta  the  Abfiunians 
as  "Father  John" 


A  graphic  description  by  Mr.  Alfred  Crowley  of  a  visit  to  the  breeding  haunts  of  the 
spoonbill,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Amsterdam,  in  1884,  is  well  worth  reproducing  hero  :  "  Taking 
a  small  boat  in  tow,  we  were  punted  across  the  open  water,  over  which  were  flying  numbers 
of  sand-martins,  swifts,  common  and  black  terns,  and  black-headed  gulls,  the  reeds  being  full 
of  coots,  moorhens,  sedge-  and  reed-warblers,  etc.,  and  in  the  distance  we  saw,  rising  above 
the  reeds  occasionally,  a  small  spoonbill  or  purple  heron.  On  Hearing  a  large  mass  of  reeds, 
one  of  the  boatmen  struck  the  side  of  the  punt  with  the  pole,  when  up  rose  vine  tiltv 
spoonbills  and  eight  or  ten  purple  herons;  and  as  we  came  closer  to  the  reeds  there  were  soon 
hovering  over  our  heads,  within  easy  -hot,  some  2OO  of  the  former,  and  fifty  or  sixty  of  the 
latter.  Strange  to  say,  not  a  note  or  sound  escaped  from  the  spoonbills,  and  only  a  feu- 
croaks  from  the  herons.  On  reaching  the  reeds,  we  moored  our  punt,  and  two  of  the  men, 
wading  in  the  mud,  took  us  in  the  small  boat  about  fifty  yards  through  the  reeds,  where 
we  found  ourselves  surrounded  by  spoonbill-'  nests.  They  were  plac<  d  on  the  mud  among 
the  reeds,  built  about  I  toot  or  i.S  inches  high  and  2  feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom, 
tapering  to  I  foot  at  the  top,  where  there  was  a  Might  depression,  in  which  lay  four  e 
or  in  most  cases  four  young  bird-,  many  ready  to  leave  the  nest,  and  several  ran  off  as  we 


STORKS,    HERONS,    AND     PELICAN    TRIBE  55 


approached.  In  the  nests  with  young  there  was  a 
great  difference  in  age  and  size,  one  being  about 
a  day  or  so  old,  and  the  oldest  nearly  ready  to 
leave  the  nest — some  two  or  three  weeks  old — so 
that  evidently  the  birds  lay  their  four  eggs  at  con- 
siderable intervals,  and  begin  to  sit  on  depositing 
the  first.  After  wandering  about,  a  matter  of 
difficulty  on  account  of  the  mud,  we  found  a  clutch 
of  only  three  eggs,  and  one  of  four,  which  I  man- 
aged to  blow.  We  also  obtained  two  clutches  of 
eggs  of  the  purple  heron,  but  some  of  the  latter 
had  young." 

The  IBISES,  though  much  alike  in  form,  are 
strangely  diverse  in  colour.  One  species  was 
sacred  to  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  The  reverence 
and  affection  they  showed  to  this  bird,  above  all 
others,  is  probably  largely  due  to  its  migrating 
habits,  which  obtained  in  that  far  past  just  as 
they  do  to-day.  The  naturalist  Brehm  says  on 


Phota  h  W.  P.  Dandt,  F.Z.S.' 

COMMON    NIGHT-HERON 


.o  bt  i\fco.'jj//L 

YOUNG    COMMON    HERONS 

These  birds  have  not  yet  acquired  their  full  plumage 


this  subject:  "When  the  Nile,  after  being  at  its 
lowest  ebb,  rose  again,  and  the  water  assumed 
a  red  tinge,  then  the  ibis  appeared  in  the  land 
of  the  Pharaohs  as  a  sure  guarantee  that  the 
stream — the  giver  and  preserver  of  life,  which 
the  people  in  their  profound  reverence  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  god — would  once  again  empty  the 
well-spring  of  plenty  over  the  thirsty  land.  The 
servant  and  messenger  of  an  all-bounteous  Deity 
commanded  of  a  necessity  a  reverence  of  a  poetic 
and  distinguished  character,  by  reason  of  its  im- 
portance :  he  too  must  be  a  god." 

The  glossy  ibis  has  been  found  breeding  in 
colonies  of  thousands  in  Slavonia.  The  nests  are 
large  structures  formed  of  sticks  and  a  few  weeds, 
never  far  from  the  water,  and  many  even,  in  the 
colony  referred  to,  were  so  near  the  surface  that 
they  appeared  to  be  floating.  The  eggs,  three  or 
four  in  number,  are  of  a  beautiful  greenish  blue. 
The  young,  while  still  unable  to  fly,  climb  actively 
among  the  branches  of  the  trees  in  which  the  nest 
is  placed,  clinging  so  firmly  with  the  feet  as  to 
be  removed  with  difficulty. 

THE  HERONS  AND  BITTERNS. 

In  the  first  mentioned  of  these  two  groups 
the  COMMON  HERON  is  the  best  known.  Indeed, 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


there  must  be  few  who  have  not  encountered  it  in  a  wild  state  at  some  time  or  another.  In 
suitable  spots  it  may  occasionally  be  met  with  standing  mid-leg  in  water  on  the  look-out  for 
eels  and  other  fish  and  frogs,  a  diet  varied  by  an  occasional  young  bird  or  small  mammal. 
Sometimes  this  prey  is  hunted,  so  to  speak,  the  bird  walking  along  with  a  slow,  measured  step, 
striking  with  lightning  rapidity  and  wonderful  precision  the  moment  its  victim  is  sighted,  whilst 
at  others  it  stands  motionless,  as  when  fishing,  striking  the  instant  the  unsuspecting  eel  or 
flounder  comes  within  range. 

Herons  breed  in  more  or  less  extensive  colonies,  the  nests — somewhat  bulky  structures, 
made  of  sticks  and  lined  with  twigs — being  placed  in  the  tops  of  high  trees.  From  four  to 
six  is  the  normal  number  of  eggs,  and  these  are  of  a  beautiful  sea-green  colour.  The  young 
are  thinly  clad  in  long,  hairy-looking  down,  and  for  some  considerable  time  are  quite  helpless. 

Similar  in  appearance  to  the  common  heron  is  the  American  GREAT  Hi n:  HI-:K<>.\.  though 
it  is  by  no  means  the  largest  of  the  herons,  as  its  name  might  seem  to  imply.  This  distinc- 
tion belongs  to  the  GOLIATH  HERON.  A 
native  of  Africa,  it  is  remarkable  not  only 
for  its  size,  but  for  an  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  long,  loose  feathers  hanging 
down  from  the  lower  part  of  the  breast, 
and  bearing  a  strange  resemblance  to  an 
apron,  concealing  the  upper  part  of  the  legs. 

Passing  over  many  species,  we  pause 
to  descant  on  the  EGRETS.  These  are  num- 
bered amongst  the  most  unfortunate  of 
birds,  and  this  because  of  the  gracefulness 
and  beauty  of  certain  parts  of  the  plumage 
worn  during  the  breeding-season,  which  are 
coveted  alike  by  Eastern  magnates  and 
Western  women.  The  feathers  in  question 
are  those  known  as  "egrets,"  or,  more  com- 
monly, "ospreys" ;  and  their  collection,  as 
Professor  Newton  points  out,  causes  some 
of  "the  most  abominable  cruelty  practised 
in  the  animal  world."  «•«  <•.-  ^  <••  <>"••>•<  '•*•  • 

The   CATTLE-EGRET,   better   known    as  BUFF-BACKED    HF,RON 

the    BUFF-BACKED    HERON,   breeds    in    the  TtuUrHMutlijfiebiuKitfnmtblfcbtfcmii 

southern  portion  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 

where  from  March  to  autumn  it  is  very  common  in  the  marshes  of  Andalusia,  thousands  con- 
gregating there,  herding  with  the  cattle,  from  the  backs  of  which  they  may  be  often  seen  pick- 
ing off  the  ticks;  hence  the  Spaniards  give  them  a  name  meaning  "cattle  cleaners." 

The  NIGHT-III.KIINS  are  comparatively  small  birds,  and  derive  their  name  from  their  habit 
of  turning  night  into  day,  waking  up  only  as  the  shades  of  evening  fall  to  bunt  for  food: 
only  during  the  breeding-season  is  this  habit  broken  through,  when  they  are  obliged  to  bunt 
for  food  for  their  young  during  the  daytime.  They  breed  in  colonies,  in  bushes  or  low  trees 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  swamps.  In  some  places  they  are  protected-  -as,  for  instance,  round 
the  Great  Honam  Temple  at  Canton,  where  these  birds  are  held  sacred. 

Colonel  Swinhoc,  says  Mr.  1  loward  Saundcrs,  describes  the  nests  "as  placed  thickly  in 
some  venerable  banyans,  the  granite  slabs  that  form  the  pavement  beneath  the  trees  being 
bedaubed  with  the  droppings  of  old  and  young,  while  from  the  nests  arose  the  chattering  cry 
of  the  callow  broods,  for  which  the  parent  birds  were  catering  the  whole  day  long,  becoming 
more  active  at  sunset.  As  darkness  set  in,  the  noise  and  hubbub  from  the  trees  rose  to  a 
fearful  pitch." 


STORKS,    HERONS,    AND     PELICAN     TRIBE          57 


In  Hungary  large  numbers  of  herons  and  egrets  breed  together  in  the  marshes,  egrets 
and  night-herons  breeding  together  with  the  common  and  purple  herons.  Landbeck,  an 
enthusiastic  ornithologist,  writes  of  such  heronries :  "The  clamour  in  these  breeding-places  is 
so  tremendous  and  singular  in  its  character  as  almost  to  defy  description ;  it  must  be  heard 
before  a  person  can  form  any  idea  of  what  it  is  like.  At  a  distance  these  hideous  noises 
blend  with  a  confused  roar,  so  as  in  some  way  to  resemble  the  hubbub  caused  by  a  party 
of  drunken  Hungarian  peas- 
ants ;  and  it  is  only  on  a 
nearer  approach  the  separate 
notes  of  the  two  species,  the 
common  and  the  night-heron, 
can  be  distinguished — namely, 
'craik'  and  'quack,'  to  which 
the  notes  of  the  young,  "zek- 
zek-zek,'  ...  in  different 
keys,  serve  as  an  accompani- 
ment." 

The  tops  of  the  highest 
trees  are  usually  occupied  by 
the  nests  of  the  common 
heron.  A  little  lower  down 
we  find  the  egret ;  and  on  the 
lowest  branches  the  heron. 

THE  BITTERNS 

These  are  birds  of  a  re- 
markable type  of  coloration, 
adapted  to  aid  their  skulking 
habits.  Thecolorationpartakes 
so  completely  of  the  nature  of 
the  undergrowth  among  which 
they  dwell,  that,  aided  by 
certain  peculiar  habits  de- 
scribed below,  they  succeed  in 
harmonising  so  perfectly  with 
their  surroundings  as  to  render 
themselves  invisible  to  their 
enemies. 

The  best-known  species 
in  Britain  is  the  COMMON  BIT- 
TKKN,  though  this  epithet  no 
longer  applicable,  for  at  the 
present  time  it  is  but  an  occa- 
sional visitant  there.  Once 
it  was  plentiful  .enough,  as  the  frequent  references  both  in  prose  and  poetry  bear  witness. 
These  references  have  been  inspired  mainly  by  its  very  peculiar  note,  made  apparently  only 
during  the  breeding-season.  This  sound  is  variously  described  as  "  booming,"  "  bellowing,"  and 
"  bumping,"  and  many  arc  the  theories  which  have  been  invented  to  account  for  its  origin. 
Thomson,  in  "  The  Seasons,"  says  that  it  is  made  whilst  the  beak  is  thrust  into  the  mud :  - 

The  bittern  knows  his  time,  with  bill  ingulf'd 
To  shake  the  sounding  marsh. 

Chaucer,   that    it  is  caused   whilst    it   is  immersed   under  water;   and  Dryden  represents  it  as 


Pnilt  tf  SiMaittc  Phelo.  Co. 

INDIAN    CATTLE-EGRET 

This  is  a  species  of  buff-backed  heron,  and  earns  its  name  from  its  habit  of  hovering  round 
cattle  for  the  sake  of  picking  off  the  ticks  by  -which  they  are  infested 


58        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


made   by  thrusting  the    bill   into    a  reed.     Mr.  J.  K.  Harting   is   one  of    the    few  win.    have 
actually  watched    the    bird    during    the   production   of  the  sound,  and    from   him   wo   gather 
that  it  is  made  by  expelling  the  air  from  the  throat  whilst  the  head  is  held  vertically  upwards. 

The  protective  coloration  and  the  peculiar  habits  associated  therewith  have  only  recently 
been  recognised.     These  birds,  when  threatened,  do  not  take  flight,  but  immediately  bring  the 
body  and  the  long  neck  and  pointed  head  into  one  vertical  line,  and  remain  absolutelv  motion- 
less  so  long  as  the  cause  of  alarm  peisists.     The  peculiar  coloration  of  the  body  harmonise* 
so  perfectly  with  the  surrounding  undergrowth,  that,  as  just  remarked,  detection  is  well-nigh 
impossible.     Although  the  pattern  and  tone  of  the  coloration  vary  in  the  various  specie 
bittern  —  which  occur  all  over  the  world  —  this  principle  of  protection  obtains  in  all. 
The  drainage  of  the  fens  is  answerable  for  the  extinction  of  the  bittern  in  England. 
\Ve  would  draw  special  attention  to  the  great  length  of  the  feathers  on  the  neck,  which,  when 
the  bird  is  excited,  are  extended  on  either  side  to  form  an  enormous  feather  shield.      1  his  is 
admirably  shown  in  the  photograph  below,  which  represents  a  bittern  preparing  to  strike.     It  i-  a 
curious  fact  that,  when  extended,  the  hind  part  of  the  neck  is  protected  only  by  a  thin  <  ..at  of 
down.     When  the  excitement  has  passed,  the  elongated  feathers  fall  again,  and,  curling  round 
the  unprotected  area,  give  the  bird  the  appearance  of  having  a  perfectly  normally  clothed  neck. 
A  wounded  bittern  will  strike  at  either  man  or  dog,  and  is  extremely  dangerous,  owing  to  the 
sharpness  of  its  dagger-like  bill.     If  a  dog  advances  on  one  not  entirely  disabled,  the  bird  imme- 
diately turns  itself  upon  its  back,  and  fights  with  beak  and  claws,  after  the  fashion  of  a  wounded 
hawk  or  owl.     Owing  to  the  way  in  which  the  neck  can  be  tucked  up,  by  throwing  it  into  a 
series  of  curves,  and  then  suddenly  extended,  great  danger  attends  the  approach  of  the  unwary. 
The  bittern  is  by  no  means  particular  in  its  choice  of  food,  small  mammals,  birds,  li/ards, 
frogs,  fishes,  and  beetles  being  alike  palatable.     The  writer  remembers  taking  from  the  gullet 
and  stomach  of  one  of  these  birds  no  less  than  four  water-voles,  three  of  which  hail  apparently 
been  killed  only  just  before  it  was  shot,  for  the  process  of  digestion  had  hardly  begun. 

On  migration  these  birds  appear  to  travel    in    flocks  of  considerable  size,  since  Captain 
Kelham  reports    having   seen  as  many  as    fifty  together    high  up   in   the  air,  when    beuu-en 
Alexandria  and  Cairo.     Curiously  enough,  they  flew  like  "  a  gaggle  "  of  geese  —  in  the  form  of 
a  V !  but  every  now  and  then  he  noticed  they,  for  some  reason  or  other,  got  into  great  confusion. 
At  one   time   the  flesh   of  the   bittern  was  much   esteemed   as   food    for  the   table,  being 
likened  in  taste  and  colour  to  the  leveret,  with  some  of  the  flavour  of  wild-fowl.     Sir  Thomas 
Browne,  who  flourished  during  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  says  that  young  bitterns 

were    c<  >nsid<  :  <•<!    better    <  ating    than 
f;  <  '  /  young  herons. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  it  bred 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  fens  of 
Cambridgeshire,    and    was    so    highly 
esteemed    as  a  bird    for   the  table  that 
the   taking  of  its  eggs  was  forbidden. 
At  a  court-baron  of  the  Hishop  of  Kly, 
according  to  Mr.  J.  I-'..   Harting,  held 
at    I.ittlcport   in    the   eleventh   year  of 
the  reign  of  Kdward  1 1.,  several  people 
were     lined     for     taking     the     eggs     of 
the  bittern  and  carrying   them   out  of 
the  ten,  to  the  great  destruction  of  the 
birds.     1  Jecrcasing  steadily  in  numb 
_^^_^^^_______^______          the     bittern    continued     to     breed     in 

>•/,.,.»,  7.  L.  a..*.,.,  T.,,.  ~  Hritain    till    the    middle   of   the    nine- 

COMMON    HITTKRN  teenth   century,   one   of  the   last   nests 

Prtfarinf  it,  attack  (nJt  fine)  being  taken  in   Norfolk   in    1868. 


a  by  U'.  P.  Dandc,  t.Z..-,.] 


EGYPTIAN    PELICAN 

In  the  Pelicans  the  tiuo  sexes  are  cct^ur<:d  a 


[Regenft  t'ark 


59 


60         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    \\ORLD 


Tin:  Pi  I.ICAN  Tumi: 

The  members  of  the  Pelican 
Tribe  may  be  readily  distinguished 
from  other  living  birds  by  the 
fact  that  all  their  toes  arc  united 
in  a  common  fold  of  skin  or  wcl>. 
In  the  Ducks  and  other  wcb-l'o,, ted 
birds  only  the  front  toes  arc  so 
united. 

The  Pelican  Tribe  embraces 
several  apparently  dissimilar  forms, 
whose  only  claim  to  be  grouped 
together,  judged  from  a  superficial 
point  of  view,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
they  possess  the  peculiar  type  of 
foot  above  mentioned.  \Yith  the 
general  appearance  of  the  Pelican 
itself  probably  every  one  is  familiar, 
but  we  had  better  mention  here 
that  the  other  representatives  of 
the  group  with  which  we  have 
now  to  deal  are  the  Cormorants 
and  Ganncts,  common  on  the 
British  coasts,  and  the  less-known 
Darters,  Frigate-birds,  and  Tropic- 
birds;  these,  as  we  know  from 
their  anatomy,  are  all  closely  allied  forms,  and  with  the  Pelicans  make  up  a  somewhat  isolated 
group  whose  nearest  allies  appear  to  be  the  members  of  the  Stork  Tribe. 

The  PELICAN  figures  largely  in  ecclesiastical  heraldry  as  the  type  of  maternal  tenderness. 
Tradition  has  it  that  the  bird,  in  admonishing  its  young,  occasionally  did  so  with  such 
violence  as  to  slay  them.  Remorse  immediately  following,  the  distracted  parent  drew  blood 
from  its  own  breast,  and  therewith  sprinkled  the  victims  of  its  wrath,  which  thereupon  became 
restored  to  life  again.  The  exhaustion  following  on  this  loss  of  blood  was  so  great  that  the 
young  had  perforce  to  leave  the  nest  to  procure  food  for  themselves  and  the  sinking  parent. 
If  any,  through  lack  of  filial  affection,  refused  to  aid  in  this  good  work,  the  mother,  on 
recovering  strength,  drove  them  from  her  presence,  but  the  faithful  children  she  permitted  to 
follow  her  wherever  she  went. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  pelican  is  the  pouch  which  hangs  suspended 
from  the  under  side  of  the  beak.  This  is  capable  of  great  distension,  and  is  used,  ulu-n  fishing, 
as  a  sort  of  bag-net,  of  which  the  upper  jaw  serves  as  the  lid.  The  young  are  fed  by  the 
female,  which,  pressing  her  well-filled  pouch  against  her  breast,  opens  her  mouth  and  allows 
them  to  take  their  fill  therefrom. 

Pelicans  display  great  sagacity  when  fishing,  a  (lock  often  combining  to  form  a  hor--c- 
shoe,  and,  driving  the  fish  into  a  mass,  take  their  fill.  This  method,  of  course,  i-  only  possible 
when  fishing  in  the  estuaries  of  rivers  or  lakes,  where  the  tish  can  be  "rounded  up,"  so  to 
speak.  Clumsy  as  the  pelican  looks,  it  is  yet  capable  of  wonderful  powers  of  flight;  indeed, 
it  shares  the  honour  with  the  vultures,  storks,  and  adjutants  as  an  expert  in  the  peculiar 
form  of  flight  known  as  "soaring." 

A  North  American  species  of  pelican  is  remarkable  in  that  during  the  breeding-season 
the  beak  is  ornamented  with  a  peculiar  horny  excrescence,  which  is  shed  as  soon  as  that 
period  is  over. 


Hut.  t,  th,  Dailuii  •/  B«. 


CRESTED    PELICAN 

This  bird  derives  its  name  from  the  curiously  curled  feathers  on  the  tof>  of  the  head  and 

nape  of  the  neck 


STORKS,    HERONS,    AND    PELICAN    TRIBE         61 


Pelicans    are    natives    of    the    tropical    and 

temperate  regions  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds, 

and  live  in  flocks  often  numbering   many  thou- 
sands.    The   nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and 

therein  are  deposited  two  white  eggs.    The  young 

are  helpless  for  some  time  after  hatching. 

In     all     some     six-and-thirty     species     of 

CORMORANTS  are  known  to  science,  of  which  two 

are  commonly  to  be  met  with  round  the  British 

coasts,  one  of  which  also  travels  inland  to  establish 

itself  on  such  lakes  and  rivers  as  may  afford  it 

support. 

In  various  parts  of  the  world  cormorants  are 

taken   when    young    and    trained    to   catch   fish : 

sometimes  for  sport,  or — as  in  China — to  furnish 

a  livelihood  for  their  owners.     At  one  time  the 

Master  of  the  Cormorants  was  one  of  the  officers 

in   the    Royal    Household   of  England,  the   post 

having  been  created  in   1611   by  James  I.     The 

method  of  hunting  is  as  follows: — After  fastening 

a  ring  around  the  neck,  the  bird  is  cast  off  into 

the  water,  and,  diving  immediately,  makes  its  way  beneath  the  surface  with  incredible  speed, 

and,  seizing  one  fish  after  another,   rises   in   a   short  space   of  time  with  its   mouth  full  and 

throat  distended  by  the  fish,  which  it  has  been  unable  to  swallow  by  reason  of  the  restraining 

ring.     With  these  captures  it  dutifully  returns  to  its  keeper,  who  deftly  removes  the  fish,  and 

either  returns  the  bird  to  the  water,  or,  giving  it  a  share  of  the  spoil,  restores  it  to  its  perch 
Cormorants  nest  either  in  trees  or  on  the  ground ;   they  lay  from  four  to  six  eggs,  and 

the  young  feed  themselves  by  thrusting  their  heads  far  down  the  parents'  throats  and  helping 

themselves  to  the  half-digested   fish  which  they  find  there. 

The  cormorant   has  a  certain  sinister  appearance  equalled   by  no  other  bird,  so  that  its 

introduction  in  Milton's  "  Paradise 
Lost  "  (Book  IV.,  194)  seems  particu- 
larly appropriate.  Satan,  it  will  be 
remembered,  is  likened  to  a  cor- 
morant :  — 

So  clomb  this  first  grand  Thief  into  God's 
fold: 


fy  D.  Li  So«/]  [A^.'isurn- 

YOUNG    AUSTRALIAN    PELICAN 

Pelicans,  like  gannets  and  cormorants,  are  hatched  perfectly  naked 
and  quite  blind 


"halt  by  IP.  Savllit-Kint,  F.  7,    S. 

YOUNG   PELICANS 

Toung  pelicans  never  develop  Icng  down-feathers,  like  gannets  and  frigate-birds 

s 


Thence  up  he  flew,  and  in  the  Tree  of  Life, 
The  middle  tree  and  highest  there  that  grew, 
Sat  like  a  cormorant. 

The  curious  bottle-green  plumage, 
green  eyes,  long  hooked  beak,  and 
head  surmounted  by  a  crest  of  the 
smaller  sea-loving  representative  of 
the  two  British  species  were  doubt- 
less familiar  enough  to  Milton  before 
blindness  overtook  him. 

Some  of  our  readers  may  have 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  cor- 
morant's nearest  ally,  the  DARTER,  or 
SNAKE-NECK,  in  the  Fish-house  at  the 


62        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Zoological  Gardens  of  London.  For  the  sake  of  those  who  have  not,  we  may  say  that  the 
darter  may  be  described  as  a  long-necked  cormorant,  with  somewhat  lighter  plumage.  The 
head  is  small  and  flat,  and  armed  with  a  pointed,  dagger-like  bill,  whose  edges  are  finely 
toothed,  with  needle-like  points  projecting  backwards.  The  neck  is  very  long  and  slender; 
hence  its  name  of  Snake-neck.  Furthermore,  it  is  remarkable  for  a  very  strange  "  kink," 
formed  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  neck-bones— an  arrangement  intimately  associated 
with  its  peculiar  method  of  capturing  its  prey,  which,  as  with  the  cormorant,  is  pursued 
under  water.  How  dexterously  this  is  done  may  be  seen  any  day  in  the  Fish-house  at  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  where,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  these  birds  are  kept.  At  feeding- 
time  they  arc  turned  loose  into  a  large  tank 
into  which  a  number  of  small  fish  have 
been  placed.  The  birds  dive  as  soon  as  they 
reach  the  water,  and  with  surprising  speed 
chase  their  prey  till  within  short  range. 
Then,  by  a  sudden  bayonet-like  lunge,  made 
possible  by  the  peculiar  "  kink  "  in  the  neck, 
a  victim  is  transfixed,  brought  to  the  surface, 
released  from  the  bill  by  a  series  of  sudden 
jerks,  tossed  into  the  air,  and  dexterously 
caught  and  swallowed. 

The  darter  is  found  in  Africa,  India, 
the  Malay  region,  Australia,  and  South 
America,  frequenting  the  banks  of  rivers, 
lakes,  and  swamps,  sometimes  singly,  some- 
times in  pairs  or  in  immense  flocks. 

Very  different  from  either  of  the  fore- 
going species,  both  in  build  and  coloration, 
is  the  GANNKT.  In  its  habits  it  is  also 
different.  The  adult  bird  is  about  the  size 
of  a  goose,  white  in  colour,  and  armed  with 
a  powerful  pointed  bill.  Tin-  young  have  a 
quite  distinct  plumage,  being  deep  brown, 
speckled  with  white,  this  livery  being  worn 
for  nearly  three  years. 

The  greater  part  of  a  gannet's  lifetime 
seems  to  be  spent  upon  the  wing,  a  fact 
which  implies  a  very  different  method  of 
feeding  from  that  followed  by  the  cormorant 

and  darter;    and    this   is  actuallv  the  case. 
CORMORANT 


fluu  kj 


In  ikt  tf  ring  a  tfigtt  crea  it  Jnit/cpeJ,  and  a  -sftilt  fatck  af  fears  on 
the  ttigk 


Preying  upon  shoals  of  herring,  mackerel, 
sprats,  or  pilchards,  the  birds,  flying  singly 
or  in  flocks,  as  soon  as  the  fish  are  discovered, 
rise,  soar  in  circles  to  such  a  height  as  experience  shows  best  calculated  to  carry  them 
by  a  downward  motion  to  the  required  depth,  and  then,  partially  closing  the  wings,  plunge 
upon  their  prey,  and  rarely  without  success,  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  plunge 
and  the  immersion  being  about  fifteen  seconds.  A  flock  of  gannets  feeding  is  a  really 
wonderful  sight,  and  can  be  witnessed  in  many  places  around  the  British  coasts,  for  the 
gannct  is  one  of  the  very  common  Hritish  birds.  The  pilchard-fishermen  off  the  Cornish 
coast  learn  when  the  shoals  are  at  hand,  and  the  direction  in  which  they  arc  travelling, 
by  the  actions  of  these  birds.  A  very  cruel  experiment  is  sometimes  practised  upon  the 
gannet,  based  upon  its  well-known  method  of  fishing.  A  herring  is  tied  to  a  beam  and 
set  adrift,  and  the  bird,  not  noticing  the  trap,  plunges  with  its  usual  velocity  upon  the 


Bl  firmillicn  if  thi  Han.   U^allir  RelhiMtd] 


FRIGATE-BIRDS    AT   HOME 

The  feathers  of  frigate-birds  are  used  for  head-dresses  in  the  Padfc  Islands 

63 


IT'il 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fish,  with    the    result   that  it  is   killed   instantly 
by  the  shock  of  the  contact. 

Gannets  breed  in  colonies  of  thousands  on 
the  islands  off  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Scotland. 
They  lay  but  a  single  egg,  in  a  nest  composed 
of  seaweed  deposited  in  inaccessible  crags  of  pre- 
cipitous cliffs.  The  young  are  at  first  naked ; 
later  they  become  clothed  with  long  white  down. 
"  Atone  time, "says  Mr.  HowardSaunders," young 
gannets  were  much  esteemed  as  food,  from  1,500 
to  2,000  being  taken  in  a  season  during  the  month 
of  August.  They  are  hooked  up,  killed,  and  flung 
into  the  sea,  where  a  boat  is  waiting  to  pick 
up  the  bodies.  These  are  plucked,  cleaned,  and 
half  roasted,  after  which  they  are  sold  at  from 


Phttt  fa  S*h»lj-!if  Pht'6.  Ct.~\  [Paritn'i  Grttn 

YOUNG    GANNETS,    FIRST   YEAR 

The  plumage  at  this   aagt  is  very  dark  brown,  each  feather 
being  tippfd  with  white 

-eightpence  to  a  shilling  each.  .  .  .  The  fat  is 
boiled  down  into  oil,  and  the  feathers,  after  being 
well  baked,  are  used  for  stuffing  beds,  about  a 
hundred  birds  producing  a  stone  of  feathers." 

Gannets  present  one  or  two  structural  pecu- 
liarities of  sufficient  interest  to  mention  here. 
In  most  birds,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  nostrils 
open  on  each  side  of  the  beak ;  but  in  the  gannet 
no  trace  of  true  nostrils  remains;  and  the  same 
may  almost  be  said  of  the  cormorant  and  darter. 


fkttt  tt    V.A»,'j;/».    Phttt.   CV]  [Pfntn'i  C'ftn 

GANNET,    FULL    PLUMA(,I 

Tkt  fully  adult  plumage  ii  not  attained  till  the  bird  ii  three 
yeart  old 


fhtlt  *r  SlMaitlt  Fhill.   Ct.]  [Pjri.n'i   (,r»n 

GANNET,    SECOND    YEAR 

The  white  plumage  of  the  necl  ii  just  beginning  la  appear 

In  gannets,  however,  a  slight  indication  of  their 
sometime  existence  remains,  though  the  nostril 
itself  no  longer  serves  as  an  air-pa>^ige ;  and 
these  birds  are  compelled  to  breathe  through  the 
mouth.  Again,  the  tongue,  like  the  nostrils, 
has  also  been  reduced  to  a  mere  vestige. 
Stranger  still  is  the  fact  that  immediately  under 
the  skin  there  lies  .in  e\ten>ive  system  of  air- 
cells  of  large  si/e,  which  can  be  inllated  or 
emptied  at  will.  Many  of  these  cells  dip  down 
between  the  muscle-,  of  the  body,  so  that  the 
whole  orgam-.ni  is  pervaded  with  air-cells,  all  of 
which  are  in  connection  with  the  IUIIL;V 

The  FRIGATE- and  TROPIC-BIRDS,  which  now 

remain  to  In-  described,  are  -probably  much  le>s 
familiar  to  our  readers  than  the  foregoing  species. 


Phata  by   falinlini  &*  Sin),  Ltd.} 


GANNETS    ON    THE    BASS    ROCK 

The  Bass  Rock    is  the  only  breeding-station  of  the  gannet  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  British  Islands 

6s 


\  Dun  it. 


66         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


FRIGATE-BIRDS  are  remarkable  in  more  ways  than  one.  To  begin  with,  their  general  appear- 
ance may  be  described  as  that  of  a  small,  long-winged,  fork-tailed  albatross,  mounted  upon 
particularly  diminutive  legs,  so  short  as  to  do  little  more  than  raise  the  body  off  the  ground. 
Their  flight  is  wonderfully  graceful,  and  capable  of  being  sustained  for  considerable  periods ; 
for,  like  the  gannets,  they  pass  most  of  their  time  on  the  wing.  They  feed  upon  surface-fish, 
which  they  capture  from  the  surface  of  the  water  without  alighting,  or  upon  fish  which  they 
take  from  the  gannets  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Frigate-birds  build  their  nests  in  trees,  on  low  bushes,  or  on  the  ground,  and  sometimes 
upon  ledges  of  precipitous  cliffs.  The  nest  is  a  loose  structure  composed  of  sticks,  and  its 
construction  is  accompanied  by  much  pilfering  from  one  another.  Only  a  single  egg  is  laid. 

About  the  beginning  of  January  the  male  acquires  a  very  remarkable  pouch  of  brilliant 
scarlet  skin,  which  hangs  beneath  the  beak.  Frigate-birds  are  found  all  over  the  world  within 
the  tropics. 

The  TROPIC-BIRDS,  or  BOATSWAIX-IHRDS,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  more  like  gulls 
or  the  heavier  species  of  terns  in  general  appearance,  and  in  no  way  resemble  superficially 
the  forms  with  which  they  are  associated,  save  in  the  fact  that  all  the  toes  are  enclosed  in 
the  same  web.  A  study  of  their  anatomy,  however,  leaves  little  doubt  that  these  birds  are 
really  members  of  the  Pelican  Tribe. 

Either  pure  white,  relieved  with  black,  or  of  a  beautiful  apricot-yellow,  with  similar  black 
markings,  with  a  powerful  bill  and  long  tapering  tail,  the  tropic-bird  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  sea-birds.  There  are  altogether  about  six  species  of  tropic-birds,  distributed  over 
the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans.  They  nest  in  hollows  of  cliffs  or  holes  in  trees,  and  lay  a 
single  egg,  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  kestrel. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

SCREAMERS,  DUCKS,  GEESE,  AND  SWANS 


CRESTED    SCREAMER,    OR    CHAKA 

Tki  Cntitii  anJ  H'tid  Strramrn  art  iki  null  mcmhtri  if  :kt  family 
Vlilktul 


FAMILIAR  as  are  most  of  our  readers 
with  all  save  the  first  mentioned  of 
these  birds,  yet  few  probably  suspect 
how  great  a  wealth  of  forms  this  group 
displays.  All  are  more  or  less  aquatic  in 
their  habits,  of  heavy  build,  with  long  nocks 
and  small  heads,  short  legs,  and  short  wings 
and  tails.  The  young  arc  hatched  covered 
with  a  peculiar  kind  of  down,  which  more 
nearly  resembles  that  of  the  Ostrich  Tribe 
than  the  down  of  other  birds,  and  they  run 
about  or  accompany  their  parents  to  the 
water  either  immediately  or  a  few  hours 
after  hatching.  Several  -pcvics  have  become 
domesticated,  and  in  some  case-,  have  given 
risr  ti>  peculiar  breeds,  whilst  many  are  much 
in  demand  for  the  purpose  of  enlivening 
ornamental  waters. 

The  least-known  members  of  the  grouj 
are  the  very  remarkable  and  extremely  interest 
ing  SCKI:\MI  KS  of  South  America,  of  which 
there  are  three  -;  I  hese  are  large  birds, 

presenting  some   resemblances   to  the  Game- 
birds  on  the  one  hand  and  the   (ieese  on  the 


SCREAMERS,    DUCKS,    GEESE,    AND     SWANS       67 


other.  Not  only  the  beak,  but  the  skull,  in  certain 
characters,  recalls  that  of  the  Game-birds.  The  body 
may  be  described  as  goose-like,  but  in  the  longer 
legs  and  enormous  toes,  which  are  not  connected  by 
a  web,  these  birds  recall  the  Megapodes,  or  Mound- 
builders 

The  screamers  are  generally  regarded  as  primitive 
members  of  the  group  with  which  they  are  now  asso- 
ciated ;  but  in  many  respects  they  are  quite  peculiar. 
Not  the  least  interesting  of  their  habits  is  the 
great  predilection  they  observe  for  soaring  in  the  air 
at  immense  altitudes,  uttering  the  while  the  curious 
cry  to  which  they  owe  their  name.  Several  birds 
often  do  this  at  once.  Yet  stranger  is  the  fact  that 
they  not  seldom  gather  together  in  vast  flocks  to 
sing  in  concert.  Mr.  Hudson,  for  instance,  states  that 
the  species  known  as  the  CRESTED  SCREATVIER  on  one 
occasion  surprised  him  by  "  an  awful  and  overpowering 
burst  of  '  melody,'  "  which  saluted  him  from  half  a 
million  of  voices  at  an  out-of-the-way  spot  in  the 
pampas  one  evening  at  nine  o'clock;  and,  again, 
once  at  noon  he  heard  flock  after  flock  take  up  their 
song  round  the  entire  circuit  of  a  certain  lake,  each 
flock  waiting  its  turn  to  sing,  and  only  stopping 
when  the  duty  had  been  performed. 

Like  the  gannet,  these  birds  are  richly  supplied 


Pflota  by  J.    T.  f!iwman~\  [B.rlham,ltd 

AYLESBURY   DUCK 

This  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  all  domesticated  breeds 


Pha,  ft,  7.  W.  African]  [Highbury 

POCHARD 

This  is  one  of  the  diving-ducks 


with  air-cells  between  the  body  and  the  skin, 
and  between  many  of  the  muscles ;  so  highly 
are  these  cells  developed,  that  it  is  said  a  crack- 
ling sound  is  emitted  when  pressure  is  applied  to 
the  skin. 

The  wings  of  these  birds  are  armed  each  with 
a  pair  of  powerful  and  sharp  spurs,  recalling 
those  of  certain  of  the  Plover  Tribe,  though 
in  the  latter  only  one  spur  is  present  on  each 
wing. 

The  division  of  the  remainder  of  this  group 
into  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans  is  generally  recog- 
nised, but  no  hard-and-fast  line  can  yet  be  drawn 
between  the  several  sections.  We  must  regard 
them  as  representing  adaptations  to  peculiar 
modes  of  life,  which  appear  to  be  most  marked 
in  the  duck-like  forms.  These  may  be  divided 
into  FRESH-WATER  DUCKS,  SALT-WATER  DUCKS, 
SPINY-TAILED  DUCKS,  and  MERGANSERS. 

Of  the  FRESH-WATER  DUCKS,  the  most 
familiar  is  the  WILD-UUCK,  or  MALLARD.  This 
is  a  resident  British  bird,  and  also  the  parent 
of  the  domesticated  stock,  which  frequently 
closely  resembles  the  wild  form.  In  this  species, 
as  with  the  majority  of  the  fresh-water  ducks, 


68 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fli,l,  tf  If.  F.  *•<«•»]  [Leifhtt*  Buxxtrd 

EIDER-DUCK 

/;  ii  lit  dvwn  of  tkii  bird  ivliick  it  to  muck  in  demand  for  t/uilli 


the  males  wear  a  distinctive  livery;  but  the 
males  for  a  few  weeks  during  the  summer 
assume  more  or  less  completely  the  livery  of 
the  female,  a  process  aptly  described  as  going 
into  "  eclipse."  The  assumption  of  the  female 
dress  at  this  season  is  necessary,  since  it 
harmonises  completely  with  the  surrounding 
foliage,  and  so  effectually  conceals  the  bird  at 
a  time  when  it  is  peculiarly  helpless  ;  for,  .1-, 
with  all  birds,  the  quills  or  flight-feathers  are 
cast  off  by  the  process  known  as  moulting 
once  a  year,  but  instead  of  being  replaced  in 
pairs,  and  the  flight  remaining  unaffected,  they 
are  shed  all  at  once,  so  that  escape  from 
enemies  must  be  sought  by  concealment. 

Usually  among  birds  the  male  has  the 
more  powerful  voice,  but  with  the  mallard 
and  its  allies  the  reverse  is  the  case,  the 

female  giving  forth  the  loud  familiar  "  quack,  quack,"  whilst  the  note  of  the  male  sounds  like 

a  feeble  attempt  to  answer  its  mate,  but  smothered  by  a  cold  in  the  head.     This  peculiar  and 

characteristic  subdued  voice  is  associated  with  a  remarkable  bulb-shaped  bony  enlargement  at 

the   bottom    of  the  windpipe,  just  where    it   branches  off  to   the    right   and    left   lungs,   the 

female  being  without  this  swelling. 

The  nest  is  composed  of  grass,  and  lined  with  down  plucked  by  the  female  from  her  own 

breast,  with   the  sole  object,  it  is   generally  believed,  of  keeping  the  eggs  warm ;   but   it   is 

possible  that  the  down  is  removed  as  much  for  the  sake  of  bringing  the  warm  surface  of  the 

body  in  closer  contact  with  the  eggs.     The  site  chosen  for  the  nest  is  exceedingly  varied ; 

usually  the  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground   and  near  the  water,  but  sometimes  in   a   hedgerow 

or  in  a  wood,  and  occasionally  in  trees,  and  instances  are  on  record  where  the  deserted  nests 

of  hawks  and  crows  have  been  appropriated.     At  such  times  the  young  seem  to  be  brought 

to  the  ground   by  the  parent,  who   carries   them   down   in  her  bill.     It  is   some    time  before 

the  wings  of  the  young  birds 

are  big  enough  to  carry  them  ; 

indeed,   they   are  quite    full 

grown  in  so  far  as  the  body 

is  concerned.     At  this  stage 

they  are  known  as  "  flappers." 

Advantage  was  at  one  time 

taken  of  their  helplessness  in 

the  " sport"  known  as"  flapper- 
shooting."  On  other  occasions 

numbers  of  people  assembled 

and  "  beat "  a  vast  tract  of 

country,  driving  these  young 

flappers    before    them    to   a 

given   spot  where  nets  were 

placed,  in  which  as  many  as 

150  dozen  have  been  taken 

at  one  time.    Fortunately  this 

practice  has  been  abolished  """ h  "•  f~  ""'">  I*'**- *•" 

by  Act  of  Parliament.  SHELDRAKE 

Several      Very     distinct  Tki  ftmaU  tirdi,  jutltxun *f  ktr  ma  at  tit  kaicm  efa/tnf  turrrw 


' 


SCREAMERS,    DUCKS,    GEESE,    AND    SWANS         69 


domesticated  breeds  of  ducks  have  been  derived  from  the  mallard.  The  commonest  breed 
differs  but  little,  save  in  its  great  size,  from  the  wild  parent  form,  but  the  most  esteemed  are 
those  known  as  the  ROUEN  and  AYLESBURY.  The  PENGUIN-DUCK  is  the  most  aberrant  and  the 
ugliest  of  these  breeds,  having  a  peculiarly  upright,  awkward  carriage,  and  very  small  wings. 

The  SALT-WATER  DUCKS,  or  DIVING-DUCKS,  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  heavier  build 
than  the  foregoing  species,  and  many  are  of  a  sombre  coloration.  All  the  species  are 
expert  divers,  and  in  consequence  have  the  legs,  which  are  short,  placed  far  backwards,  and 
this  causes  them  to  assume  a  more  upright  carriage  when  on  land.  The  curious  bony  bulb 
at  the  base  of  the  windpipe  found  in  the  fresh-water  species  becomes  in  the  salt-water  forms 
greatly  enlarged,  and  its  walls  incompletely  ossified,  leaving  large  spaces  to  be  filled  by 
peculiarly  delicate  sheets  of  membrane.  The  majority  of  the  species  in  this  section  frequent 
the  open  sea,  but  some  occur  inland. 

One  of  the  most  useful,  and  at  the  same  time  most  ornamental,  of  this  section  is  the 
ElDER-DUCK,  the  male  in  full  plumage  being  a  truly  magnificent  bird :  the  female,  as  in  the 
majority  of  ducks,  is  clad  in  sober  colours.  In  Iceland  and  Norway  the  eider-duck  is  strictly 
protected,  a  fine  being  imposed  for  killing  it  during  the  breeding-season,  or  even  for  firing 
a  gun  near  its  haunts.  This 
most  unusual  care  is,  however, 
by  no  means  of  a  disin- 
terested kind,  but  is  extended 
solely  that  certain  privileged 
persons  may  rob  the  birds  of 
their  eggs  and  the  down  on 
which  they  rest,  the  latter 
being  the  valuable  eider- 
down so  much  in  demand  for 
bed-coverlets  and  other  pur- 
poses. "  The  eggs  and  down," 
says  Professor  Newton,  "  are 
taken  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days  by  the  owners  of  the 
'  eider-fold,'  and  the  birds  are 
thus  kept  depositing  both 
during  the  whole  season.  .  .  . 
Every  duck  is  ultimately 
allowed  to  hatch  an  egg  or 


i,  N.S, 


PARADISE-DUCKS 


This  species  is  a  native  of  Nciv  Zealand,  inhere  the  photograph  was  taken.      The  bird  on  the 
right  -with  the  white  head  is  the  female 


two  to  keep  up  the  stock."  Mr.  W.  C.  Sheppard  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a  visit  to 
an  eider-colony  on  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Iceland.  "On  landing,"  he  says,  "the  ducks 
and  their  nests  were  everywhere.  Great  brown  ducks  sat  upon  their  nests  in  masses,  and 
at  every  step  started  from  under  our  feet.  It  was  with  difficulty  we  avoided  treading  on 
some  of  the  nests.  On  the  coast  of  the  opposite  shore  was  a  wall  built  of  large  stones  .  .  . 
about  3  feet  high  and  of  considerable  thickness.  At  the  bottom,  on  both  sides  of  it, 
alternate  stones  had  been  left  out,  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  square  apartments  for  the  ducks 
to  nest  in.  Almost  every  apartment  was  occupied.  .  .  .  The  house  itself  was  a  marvel.  The 
earthen  walls  that  surrounded  it,  and  the  window  embrasures,  were  occupied  by  ducks.  On 
the  ground  the  house  was  fringed  with  ducks.  On  the  turf  slopes  of  its  roof  we  could  see 
ducks,  and  a  duck  sat  on  the  door-scraper.  The  grassy  banks  had  been  cut  into  square 
patches,  about  18  inches  having  been  removed,  and  each  hollow  had  been  filled  with  ducks. 
A  windmill  was  infested,  and  so  were  all  the  outhouses,  mounds,  rocks,  and  crevices.  The 
ducks  were  everywhere.  Many  were  so  tame  that  \vc  could  stroke  them  on  their  nests,  and 
the  good  lady  told  us  that  there  was  scarcely  a  duck  on  the  island  that  would  not  allow 
her  to  take  its  eggs  without  flight  or  fear." 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  nest  is  composed  externally  of  seaweed,  and  lined  with  down,  which  is  plucked  by 
the  female  from  her  breast  as  incubation  proceeds,  till  eventually  it  completely  conceals  the 
eggs.  Each  nest  yields  about  one-sixth  of  a  pound,  and  is  worth,  on  the  spot,  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  shillings  a  pound. 

The  POCHARDS,  SCAITS,  GOLDEX-EYES,  and  SCOTERS  are  relatives  of  the  eider-duck; 
but  since  all  resemble  the  latter  in  their  general  mode  of  life,  we  need  not  consider 
them  here. 

The  MERGANSERS  and  SMEWS,  to  which  reference  has  been  made,  differ  markedly  from  all 
the  ducks  so  far  considered  in  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  bill,  which  is  relatively  long  and 
narrow,  with  its  edges  armed  with  sharp,  tooth-like  processes  projecting  backwards  towards  the 
back  of  the  mouth.  These  processes  are  really  only  horny  spines,  and  have  no  relation  to 


Ptuti  h  i*«  Duttiut  •/  Bilftrf] 

CAPE    BARREN    GOOSE 
Tkii  bird  ii  a  aativt  of  Soutk-tast  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  remarkable  far  its  lien  heak 

teeth,  although  they  are  used,  as  teeth  would  be,  for  holding  slippery  prey,  such  as  fish,  which 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  diet  of  these  birds. 

So  far,  in  all  the  ducks  which  we  have  considered,  the  male  differs  conspicuously  from  the 
female  in  plumage ;  but  in  the  forms  we  are  now  about  to  describe  both  sexes  are  coloured  alike. 

The  first  is  the  COMMON  SHELDRAKE,  which  seems  to  lie  somewhere  on  the  borderland 
between  the  Ducks  and  the  Geese.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  bird,  conspicuously  marked  with 
broad  bands  of  orange-chestnut,  white,  and  black.  The  beak  being  coral  red  in  colour,  and 
further  ornamented  by  a  peculiar  fleshy  knob  at  its  base,  serves  to  set  off  the  glossy  bottle- 
green  colour  of  the  head  and  neck.  As  appears  to  be  invariably  the  case  where  both  sexes 
are  coloured  alike,  the  female  builds  her  nest  in  a  hole,  generally  a  rabbit-burrow,  whilst 
the  young  have  a  distinct  livery,  duller  in  tone  than  that  of  the  parent.  The  female 
sheldrake  breeds  in  Britain,  and  may  be  frequently  seen  at  sea  flying  in  small  parties,  which 
have  been  likened  to  a  flock  of  butterflies. 


SCREAMERS,    DUCKS,    GEESE,    AND    SWANS 


Pt,,t,  b,  W.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.]  [Milfird-tn-Sn 

AUSTRALIAN    PYGMY    GOOSE 

The  pygmy  geese  are  expert  divers  • 


The  GEESE  include  birds  of  somewhat  con- 
spicuous coloration,  besides  a  considerable  number 
of  more  subdued  aspect.  The  sexes  are  distin- 
guished by  different  names,  the  female  being 
known  as  the  Goose,  the  male  as  the  Gander, 
whilst  the  young  is  the  Gosling.  As  we  have 
already  mentioned,  there  is  no  hard-and-fast  line 
to  be  drawn  between  the  three  sections  of  this 
group.  The  Ducks  are  connected  by  the  Shel- 
drakes with  the  Geese,  through  the  Spur-winged 
Goose,  the  Egyptian  and  Orinoco  Geese,  and 
certain  other  species  which  cannot  be  alluded  to 
on  this  occasion. 

The  SPUR-WINGED  GEESE,  of  which  there  are 
two  species,  are  African  birds,  and  derive  their 
name  from  the  long  spur  seated  on  the  wing. 

A  still  more  remarkable  form  is  the  HALF- 
WEBBED  GOOSE,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  its 
feet  are  only  partially  webbed.  It  has  a  black- 
and-white  plumage,  a  hooked  beak,  and  a  large 
warty  prominence  on  the  front  of  the  head.  It  spends  most  of  its  time  perched  on  the  branches 
of  the  Australian  tea-trees,  and  rarely  enters  the  water.  The  windpipe  is  peculiar,  being  coiled 
in  several  folds  between  the  skin  and  the  breast-muscles. 

From  these  peculiar  forms  we  pass  to  the  true  geese.  The  largest  living  species  is  the 
CHINESE  or  GUINEA-GOOSE  of  Eastern  Siberia,  regarded  as  the  stock  from  which  the  domesticated 
geese  of  Eastern  countries  have  been  derived. 

European  domesticated  geese  have  been  derived  from  the  GREY  or  GREY-LAG  GOOSE,  a 
species  at  one  time  exceedingly  common  in  England,  breeding  in  considerable  numbers  in 
the  fen  districts,  where  the  young  were  frequently  taken  and  reared  with  the  large  flock  of 
domesticated  geese  commonly  kept  at  that  time  for  the  sake  of  their  feathers.  The  grey-lag 
goose,  however,  has  long  ceased  to  breed  in  England,  though  a  few  still  nest  in  Scotland. 

The  most  important  breeds  derived  from 
the  grey-lag  are  the  TOULOUSE  and  EMDEN. 
Other  British  species  are  the  BEAN-GOOSE, 
PINK-FOOTED  and  WHITE-FRONTED  GEESE, 
and  the  "  BLACK  "  BRENT  and  BARNACLE- 
GEESE,  in  all  of  which  the  sexes  are  precisely 
similar  in  coloration  and  subdued  in  tone. 

In  the  New  World  some  very  beautiful 
white  geese  are  found,  which  are  still  more 
interesting  in  that  the  females  have  a  different 
coloration.  These  are  the  KELP-  and  UPLAND- 
GEESE  of  Patagonia  and  the  Falklands.  The 
female  of  the  kelp-goose  is  brownish  black 
above  and  black  barred  with  white  below, 
whilst  the  female  of  the  upland-goose  is 
rufous  and  black  in  colour.  The  latter  may 
be  seen  in  London  parks. 

I  astly,  we  have  a  few  species  known  from 
.,  F.Z...]  thdr  sma]1  size  as  pvGMY  GEESE  of  Australia, 

BLACK-NECKED   SWAN  Indiai  and  Africa.      Perhaps  the  best  known 

Thefitshy  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill  is  of  a  bright  red  colour  is  the  Indian  Species,  Called  the  COTTON-TEAL. 


72          THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


TRUMPETER-   AND    WHOOPER-S W ANS 

Tkt  trumftttr  it  ttt  bird  in  the  foreground  :  ike  ivkooftr  it  rtmarkablt  for  in  mulical  note,  rcumblin£  tkt  word  "  ivkoof  ' '  quietly  •  rprjrrj 

They  are  tiny  birds,  resembling   small   ducks  rather  than    geese,  and  dive  admirably,  a  feat 
which  the  larger  species  do  not  perform. 

The  SWANS  are  linked  with  the  Geese  through  a  very  beautiful  South  American  species, 
known  as  the  COSCOROBA  SWAN.  It  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  swans,  pure  white  in  colour,  save 
the  tips  of  the  greater  wing-quills,  which  are  black,  and  the  coral-red  bill  and  feet. 

Of  all  the  swans,  probably  the  best  known  is  the  MI;TK  SWAN,  the  semi-domesticated 
descendants  of  which  are  so  common  on  ornamental  waters.  For  hundreds  of  vcars  the 
latter  were  jealously  guarded,  none  but  the  larger  freeholders  being  allowed  to  keep  them,  and 
then  not  without  a  licence  from  the  Crown;  with  this  licence  was  coupled  an  obligation  to 
mark  each  swan  with  a  particular  mark,  cut  with  a  knife  or  other  instrument  through  the  skin 
of  the  beak,  whereby  ownership  might  be  established. 

It  would  seem  that  these  swans  and  their  descendants  were  not  derived  from  the  native 
wild  stock,  but  were  introduced  into  England,  it  is  said,  from  Cyprus  by  Rich. ml  I.  At  the 
present  day  large  "  swanneries  "  have  almost  ceased  to  exist  Perhaps  the  largest  is  that  of 
the  Earl  of  Ilchcster,  at  Abbotsbury,  near  \\Vymouth.  In  i,X;8  between  1,300  and  1.400 
swans  were  to  be  seen  there  at  one  time,  but  latterly  the  number  has  been  reduced  to 
about  half. 

Although  swans  do  not  perhaps  stand  so  high  in  the  general  esteem  as  table  delic., 
with  our  forefathers,  then-  are  yet  many  who  appreciate  the  flesh  of  this  bird;  but  the 
St.  Helen's  Swan-pit  at  Norwich  is  the  only  place  in  England  where  they  are  systematically 
fattened  for  the  table.  Here  from  70  to  200  cygnets  -as  the  young  swans  are  called  — 
caught  in  the  neighbouring  rivers,  are  placed  early  in  August,  and  fed  upon  cut  grass  ,md 
barley  till  Christmas,  when  they  are  fit  for  table,  weighing,  when  "dressed,"  about  15  Ibs., 


SCREAMERS,    DUCKS,    GEESE,    AND    SWANS        73 

and  fetching,  if  purchased  alive  at  the  pit,  about  two  guineas  each.  The  pit  is  con- 
structed of  brickwork,  and  is  about  74  feet  long,  32  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  deep — the  water, 
admitted  from  the  river,  being  about  2  feet  deep.  The  food  is  placed  in  floating  troughs. 
The  birds,  "  when  so  disposed,"  says  Mr.  Southwell,  "  leave  the  water  by  walking  up  a 
sloping  stage,  and  thus  obtain  access  to  a  railed-in  enclosure,  where  they  may  rest  and  preen 
themselves." 

The  beautiful  swan-like  carriage,  so  familiar  in  the  floating  bird,  seems  to  belong  only  to 
the  mute  swan,  the  other  species  of  white  swans  carrying  the  neck  more  or  less  straight,  and 
keeping  the  wings  closely  folded  to  the  body. 

No  greater  anomaly  could  at  one  time  have  been  imagined  than  a  BLACK  SWAN.  For 
centuries  it  was  considered  to  be  an  impossibility.  We  owe  the  discovery  of  such  a  bird  to 
the  Dutch  navigator  Willem  de  Vlaming,  who,  more  than  200  years  ago,  captured  the  first 
specimen  at  the  mouth  of  what  is  now  known,  in  consequence,  as  the  Swan  River.  A  year 
after  their  capture  accounts  reached  England  through  the  burgomaster  of  Amsterdam,  and 
these  were  published  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1698.  The  bird  is  now  fairly  common  on 
ornamental  waters,  where  its  sooty-black  plumage,  set  off  by  pure  white  quill-feathers  and 
coral-red  bill,  contrasts  strongly  with  the  typical  snow-white  mute  swan,  generally  kept 
with  it. 

Equally  interesting  is  the  handsome  BLACK-NECKED  S\VAN  of  South  America.  In  this 
species  the  plumage  is  pure  white,  save  that  of  the  neck,  which  is  black.  The  distribution 
of  this  species  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  Coscoroba  swan.  Breeding  freely  in 
confinement,  it  has  become  a  fairly  common  bird  on  ornamental  waters.  It  shares  with 
the  mute  swan  the  reputation  of  gracefulness  when  afloat,  swimming  'with  the  neck  curved 
and  wings  raised. 


I 


t  h  W.  Kiid] 


AUSTRALIAN    BLACK    SWANS    AND    CYGNETS 

The  cygnets  are  light-coloured,  like  those  of  the  'white  siuans 


[Wiituw,  N.B. 


CHAPTER     IX 
BIRDS   OF  PRET  J\I)    OIl'LS 


BIRDS   OF   PREY 

T  one  time  the  boundaries  of  this  group  were  much  larger 
than  now,  for  within  them  were  included  at  least 
form  which  has  since  proved  to  belong  to  the  Ci.inc 
Tribe:  we  allude  to  the  Seriema  (page  42Si, 
and  also  to  the  Owls.  This  classification  was 
based  on  the  very  remarkable  superficial 
resemblance  to  the  typical  birds  of  prey 
which  those  forms  bear.  Modern  ornitho- 
logists regard  as  birds  of  prey  onlv  the 
forms  known  as  the  \cw  World  Yiiltinv-. 
the  Secretary-bird,  and  the  Falcons,  I  .a-1.  ~. 
Vultures,  Buzzards,  and  the  numcn  >us  smaller 
forms  commonly  classed  as  "  Hawks." 


Phut  f>t  Sth»Iaiti{  Ptittt.  C«.] 

CONDOR 


[Pfntn't  Grtin 


The  habit  of  standing   with   tke  wings  exf  aided  it  a   very 
common  one  •with  these  bird* 

THE  NEW  WORLD  VULTURES 

These  may  be  distinguished  from 
their  distant  relatives  of  the  Old  World 
by  the  fact  that  the  nostrils  are  not 
divided  from  one  another  by  a  partition, 
and  by  their  much  weaker  feet.  The 
head  and  neck  in  all,  as  in  the  true 
vultures,  is  more  or  less  bare,  and, 
furthermore,  is  often  very  brilliantly 
coloured,  in  which  last  .particular  these 
birds  differ  from  the  typical  vultures. 

One  of  the  most  important  members 
of  the  group  is  the  CONDOR,  one  of  the 
largest  of  flying  birds,  and  when  on 
the  wing  the  most  majestic.  "  When  the 
condors,"  says  Darwin,  "  are  wheeling  in 
a  flock  round  and  round  any  spot,  their 
flight  is  beautiful.  Except  when  rising 
off  the  ground,  I  do  not  recollect  ever 
having  seen  one  of  these  birds  flap  its 
wings.  Near  Lima  I  watched  several  for 
nearly  half  an  hour,  without  once  taking 


.   f.   D**d,,  f.X.S. 


CONDOR 

The  bare  sJtin  of  the  head  and  nick  it  of  a  da'k  purple  colour,  the  rujft 
circling  the  neck  being  of  pure  white  d^-wn-J'tathert 

7-4 


BIRDS     OF     PREY    AND    OWLS  75 

off  my  eyes ;  they  moved  in  large  curves,  sweeping  in  circles,  descending  and  ascending,  with- 
out giving  a  single  flap."  One  which  he  shot  measured,  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  fully  expanded 
wings,  8^2  feet. 

The  condor,  like  its  smaller  relatives,  hunts  by  sight,  and  not,  as  was  at  one  time  believed, 
by  smell,  feeding  on  the  dead  bodies  of  guanacos  which  have  died  a  natural  death  or  been 
killed  by  pumas,  and  upon  other  dead  animals.  In  the  neighbourhood  where  sheep  and  goats 
are  kept,  they  are  much  dreaded,  as  they  will  attack  the  young  kids  and  lambs.  The  flock- 
owners  on  this  account  wage  constant  war  against  them,  capturing  them  by  enclosing  a  carcase 
within  a  narrow  space,  and  when  the  condors  are  gorged  galloping  up  on  horseback  and  killing 
them,  for  when  this  bird  has  not  space  to  run  it  cannot  rise  from  the  ground.  Sometimes  the 
trees  on  which  they  roost  are  marked,  and  when  night  falls  a  man  climbs  the  tree  and  cap- 
tures them  with  a  noose,  for  they  are  very  heavy  sleepers. 

The  condor  ranges  from  the  Andes  of  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chili  southwards  to  the  Rio 
Negro  on  the  east  coast  of  Patagonia.  It  lays  two  large  white  eggs  on  a  shelf  of  bare  rock 
projecting  from  precipitous  cliffs,  and  the  young  are  said  to  be  unable  to  fly  till  after  they  are 
a  year  old.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  photographs,  the  head  of  the  male  is  crowned  by  a  bare, 
fleshy  caruncle,  which,  like  the  surrounding  bare  skin,  is  of  a  dull  reddish  colour:  lower  down 
the  neck  is  a  frill  of  pure  white  down,  which  forms  a  conspicuous  contrast  with  the  glossy 
black  plumage  of  the  rest  of  the  body  and  wings. 

THE  SECRETARY-BIRD. 

The  second  of  the  three  main  divisions  into  which  the  Birds  of  Prey  are  divided  is  reserved 
for  the  SECRETARY-BIRD.  This  bird  derives  its  name  from  the  crest  of  long  feathers  which  bear 
a  fanciful  resemblance  to  the  quill-pens  a  clerk  is  supposed  to  stick  above  his  ear.  It  differs 
from  all  the  other  members  of  the  Hawk  Tribe  in  the  exceedingly  long  legs,  which  in  the  young 
are  said  to  be  so  fragile  as  to  fracture  if  the  bird  is  suddenly  alarmed.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
insects  and  reptiles,  especially  snakes,  for  which  last  it  seems  to  have  a  special  liking.  It  attacks 
even  the  most  venomous  species,  striking  at  them  with  its  powerful  wings  and  pounding  them 
with  its  feet,  jumping  upon  them  with  great  force,  till  rendered  helpless,  when  they  are  at  once 
swallowed  head-foremost.  On  account  of  its  great  value  as  a  snake-eater  it  has  been  accorded 
special  protection,  though  unfortunately  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  English  settlers  to 
relax  this,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  will  occasionally  eat  animals  coming  within  the  scope  of 
"game."  Valuable  as  the  latter  may  be,  there  yet  seems  no  justification  for  such  a  course. 

The  secretary-bird,  which  is  a  South  African  species,  though  extending  northwards  as  far 
as  Abyssinia,  builds  a  huge  nest  of  sticks  in  low  bushes,  under  which  will  often  be  found 
numerous  nests  of  the  Cape  sparrow,  apparently  the  only  available  site  on  the  veldt,  where 
bushes  are  scarce.  Here  the  sparrows  are  efficiently  protected  from  the  icy  winds  which  so 
frequently  sweep  across  this  region,  and  apparently  suffer  no  fear  of  personal  violence  from 
the  fierce  owners  of  the  domicile  above  them.  When  sitting,  the  female  secretary  is  fed  by 
her  mate.  The  young  do  not  appear  to  leave  the  nest  for  five  or  six  months.  They  are 
frequently  taken  from  the  nest  and  brought  up  as  household  pets,  becoming  not  only  very 
tame,  but  exceedingly  useful. 

THE  EAGLE  AND  FALCON  TRIBE. 

From  the  perplexing  wealth  of  species  displayed  among  the  forms  herein  bracketed 
together,  we  can  only  select  a  few  examples,  which  embrace,  however,  all  the  more  important 
and  interesting  forms. 

Beginning  with  the  more  lowly,  we  start  with  those  members  of  small  or  medium  size 
known  as  KITES,  and  as  an  example  of  the  group  take  the  species  known  in  the  British 
Islands  as  the  KITE,  or  GLEAD.  In  former  days  this  bird  was  extremely  common  in  England, 


76         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


being  found  in  numbers  not  only  in  the  rural  districts,  but  in  London  itself,  where,  as  old 
records  of  the  fifteenth  century  show,  it  occurred  in  such  numbers  near  London  Bridge  %  to 
excite  the  wonder  of  foreigners  visiting  the  city.  These  birds  found  an  abundance  of  food  in 
the  garbage  of  the  streets,  and  also  of  the  Thames  itself— "an  observation,"  remarks  Mr.  Finn, 
"  which  throws  a  lurid  light  upon  the  city  sanitation." 

In  the  days  of  falconry  the  kite  was  royal  game,  not,  however,  by  legal  enactment,  hut 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  none  but  specially  trained  falcons  could  secure  a  prey  with  such 
wonderful  powers  of  flight.  Consequently  the  price  of  a  falcon  which  had  attained  this  degree 
of  skill  was  beyond  the  purse  of  any  but  a  king. 

Save  on  the  wing,  the  kite  is  not  a  handsome  bird,  its  general  colour  being  of  a  pale 
reddish  brown;  but  those  who  have  had  the  good  fortune  to  watch  its  flight  are  one  and  all 
impressed.  Cowper  admirably  expresses  the  general  admiration  in  the  lines:  — 

Kites  that  swim  sublime 
In  still  repeated  circles,  screaming  loud. 

The  kites  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  tribe  by  their  forked  tails. 
Somewhat  of  a  scavenger,  as  we 
have  already  hinted,  the  kite 
feeds  also  upon  such  small  game 
as  moles,  frogs,  young  birds, 
rabbits,  snakes,  and  fish.  Its 
partiality  for  young  birds  caused 
it  to  be  much  dreaded  in  the 
farmyard  in  the  days  when  it 
was  common ;  and  when,  with 
the  introduction  of  modern  and 
improved  firearms,  game-preserv- 
ing became  more  strenuously 
prosecuted,  its  doom  was  sealed, 
for  a  ceaseless  war  was  waged 
against  it,  which  ended  only  with 
its  extermination. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Kites, 
the  HoNEV-BfZZARDS  next  claim 
attention.  The  name  Honey- 
buzzard  is  a  misnomer,  for  honey 
forms  no  part  of  the  bird's  food.  . 
This  species  exhibits,  however,  a 
quite  remarkable  partiality  for 
the  immature  stages  of  wasps 
and  bees,  the  nests  of  which  it 
tears  in  pieces  with  its  feet,  so 
as  to  lay  bare  the  coveted 
morsels,  devouring  them  on  the 
spot,  perfectly  regardless  of  the 
stings  of  the  infuriated  insects, 
which  seem  unable  to  penetrate 
its  feathers.  When  its  favourite 
food  is  not  to  be  had,  it  will 
feed  upon  corn,  earth-worm>, 
beetles,  slugs,  small  birds'  e^ 
and  moles— a  diet  sufficiently 


Plot,  *;  S.Miuii  Mil..  Ci.] 


I  Pant*' j  OV*«i 


SECRETARY-BIRD 

7'  full  plumage  tkt  tail  of  tku  bird  n  much  Jongtr 


AUSTRALIAN    W  H  IT  E -B  E  LLI  ED    SEA    EAGLE 
This  species  of  ospny  is  confined  to  Australia  anJ  the  Austra-Malay  IslanJs 

77 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


strange  for  a  bird  of  prey.  Honey-buzzards  appear  to  be  exemplary  parents,  for  they  are  said 
to  construct  a  bower  of  leafy  boughs  above  the  nest  to  screen  the  young  from  the  sun,  the 
boughs  being  replaced  as  they  wither  by  fresh  ones. 

The  honey-buzzard  occurs  but  rarely  in  England,  and  nowhere  appears  to  be  a  very 
common  bird,  though  it  is  said  to  be  more  frequently  met  with  in  Arabia  and  Egypt  than 
elsewhere.  On  migration,  however,  it  appears  in  unusually  large  numbers,  the  late  Lord 
Lilford  recording  an  occasion  when  he  observed  many  hundreds  crossing  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
from  Spain  to  Africa.  These  were  apparently  on  their  autumnal  migration  to  warmer  winter 
quarters. 

The  dash,  energy,  and  courage  which  we  are  wont  to  associate  with  the  Hawk  Tribe 
have  certainly  not  been  manifest  in  the  members  of  the  order  which  we  have  examined  so 
far;  but  these  attributes  will  be  evident  enough  in  the  majority  of  the  species  with  which 
we  are  now  about  to  deal.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  fiercer  forms  is  the  OSPKKY, 
or  FlSHING-HAWK.  As  its  name  implies,  it  feeds  largely  upon  fish,  which  it  captures  with 
great  dexterity,  seizing  them  either  with  its  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  by  plunging 
entirely  beneath  the  surface,  when  it  disappears  amid  a  shower  of  spray,  to  emerge  a  moment 
later  with  a  fish  writhing  in  its  talons.  To  ensure  a  firm  grip  of  its  slippery  prey,  the  si'les 
of  its  feet  are  armed  with  rough  tubercles,  whilst  the  foot  is  furthermore  remarkable  in  that 
the  outer  toe  can  be  turned  backwards,  so  as  to  lie  parallel  with  the  hind  toe  —  an  arrangement 
rare  in  birds  of  the  Hawk  Tribe,  but  characteristic  of  the  Owls  and  some  other  birds.  At 

times,  it  would  seem,  the  osprey  seizes  a  fish  too  large 
to  be  raised  from  the  water,  when,  owing  to  the  firm 
hold  which  the  claws  have  taken,  the  bird  is  unable 
to  release  itself,  and  is  speedily  dragged  beneath  the 
surface  and  drowned.  Some  have  suggested  that  the  bird 
falls  a  victim,  not  to  inability  to  free  itself,  but  rather 
to  its  obstinacy. 

The  osprey  is  now  rare  in  Great  Britain,  though  it 
breeds  occasionally  in  the  wilder  parts  of  Scotland.  It 
enjoys  an  extensive  range,  however,  being  found  all  over 
the  world.  In  America  it  appears  to  be  very  common. 
On  an  island  "  off  the  eastern  extremity  of  Long  Island, 
New  York,"  writes  Professor  Newton,  "  300  nests  were 
counted.  The  old  birds  were  rearing  their  young  close 
together,  living  as  peaceably  as  so  many  rooks,  and 
were  equally  harmless  to  other  birds."  Colonies  of  this 
kind  are  rare  among  birds  of  prey. 

Whilst  the  fiercer  raptorial  birds,  which  hunt  and 
kill  their  prey,  live  only  upon  small  or  medium-sized 
animals,  a  certain  section,  known  as  the  WI:ITKI-;S,  feed 
upon  the  carcases  of  the  largest  mammals  which  they 
find  either  in  the  throes  of  death  or  already  dead,  and 
even  far  advanced  in  decomposition.  Gathering  to  the 
feast  in  large  crouds,  even  the  largest  bodies  arc  soon 
demolished;  and  on  this  account  the  vultures  are  to  be 
reckoned  amongst  the  most  useful  of  birds,  speedily 
removing  matter  which  in  hot  countries  would  rapidly 
endanger  the  health  of  neighbouring  communities. 

Many  years  ago  a  great  controversy  was  waged  over 
the  question  of  the  faculty  which  guides  the  vulture 
in  the  discovery  of  its  food,  since  it  was  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  that  the  traveller  might  sweep  the 


l^^^="fc 
Wfl 


i 


ftitt*  if   tP    F.   £>*«.<•,  F.Z.  *.,  Ktftnt'i  Ptrk 

EGYPTIAN    KITE 

Fttdmg  on  garbage  of  all  kindt,  kittt  are  useful  bk 
in  not  countriet 


BIRDS     OF     PREY    AND     OWLS 


79 


horizon  in  vain  for  a  sign  of  these  birds,  yet,  should  a  camel  from  a  caravan  fall  out  and  die, 
or  men  fall  in  warfare,  within  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time  a  crowd  of  vultures  would  be 
squabbling  over  the  dead.  Some  held  that  the  vulture  was  guided  by  scent,  others  by  sight,, 
and  this  latter  view  is  now  almost  universally  accepted.  The  bird's  natural  habit  of  soaring 
at  an  immense  height  enables  it  to  survey  not  only  immense  tracts  of  country,  but  the 
actions  of  its  neighbours  soaring  at  the  same  altitude,  though  perhaps  miles  away.  So  soon 
as  one  descries  food  it  betrays  the  fact  by  its  actions,  making  off  in  the  direction  of  the 
prospective  feast;  it  is  then  followed  immediately  by  its  yet  more  distant  neighbour,  and  this 
by  a  third,  and  so  the  first  serves  as  a  guide  to  all  the  other  soaring  birds  for  miles  around. 

This  flight  has  been  admirably  expressed  by  Long- 
fellow in  "  Hiawatha." 

We  need  here  mention  only  one  or  two  of  the 
more  important  species  of  vulture,  and  among  these 
one  of  the  most  interesting  is  the  LAMMERGEiR,  or 
BEARDED  VULTURE.  This  species  is  one  of  the  least 
vulture-like  of  the  tribe,  not  only  in  general  appear- 
ance, but  also  in  habits,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as 
near  the  ancestral  stock,  whose  descendants  have 
become  more  and  more  addicted  to  feeding  upon 
dead  bodies. 

The  lammergeir,  or  bearded  vulture,  is  a  bird 
of  large  size  and  majestic  flight,  differing  from  all 
other  vultures  in  that  the  head  and  neck  are  clothed 
in  feathers,  whilst  the  nostrils  are  covered  by  long 
bristles.  Beneath  the  bill  hangs  a  tuft  of  bristles 
like  those  covering  the  nostrils ;  hence  its  name  of 
Bearded  Vulture  ;  and  this,  coupled  with  a  remarkable 
red  rim  to  the  eyes,  gives  the  bird  an  almost  diabolical 
appearance.  It  lives  partly  upon  living  animals  and 
partly  upon  carrion,  bones  apparently  being  especially 
relished ;  these  it  breaks  by  dropping  them  from  a 
height  upon  the  rocks  below,  probably  to  get  at  the 
marrow.  Land-tortoises  are  treated  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  it  was  possibly  this  species  which 
caused  the  death  of  the  poet  /Eschylus,  on  whose 
bare  head  a  tortoise  is  alleged  to  have  been  dropped. 
It  was  at  one  time  common  in  Europe,  and  is  still 
fairly  numerous  in  West  Africa,  though  rare  in  the 
East  and  South.  Many  stories  are  told  of  its 
strength  and  daring,  some  of  which  concern  the 
carrying  off  of  young  children ;  but  these  are  prob- 
ably mythical,  modern  observers  generally  agreeing  that  the  bird  is  by  nature  far  from 
courageous. 

The  more  typical  vultures  differ  from  the  lammergeir  in  having  the  head  and  neck  more 
or  less  bare,  and  often  conspicuously  coloured,  or  covered  with  a  short  velvety  down.  The 
CINEREOUS,  GRIFFON,  PONDICHERRY,  and  EGYPTIAN  VULTURES  maybe  cited  as  examples  of  these. 
The  CINEREOUS  or  BLACK  VULTURE  is  a  heavy  and  repulsive-looking  bird,  feeding  entirely 
on  garbage.  On  the  wing,  however,  this  vulture  shares  with  its  relatives  the  admiration  of  all 
who  have  been  privileged  to  watch  it;  sailing  in  graceful  circles  in  the  blue  sky  of  the  tropics, 
or  hurrying  from  all  quarters  of  the  compass  to  some  ghoulish  feast,  it  forms  a  spectacle,  once 
seen,  never  to  be  forgotten.  It  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  extends 
eastwards  to  India  and  China. 


fhala  kj  Charlii  Knight}  \Aldtrs}M 

BEARDED    VULTURE 

//  is  called  the  Bearded  Culture  on  account  of'  the  tuft  of 
bristles  hanging  frt/m  the  chin 


8o         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


This  species,  like  the  GRIFFON-VULTURE, 
has  the  head  and  neck  down-covered,  thus  stand- 
ing in  strong  contrast  with  the  PoNDlCHERRY 
and  SACRED  VULTURES  of  India  and  Africa, 
which  have  bare  heads  and  necks  ornamented  by 
loose  folds  or  lappets  of  skin  of  a  pinkish  colour. 
These  vultures  hunt  in  pairs,  and  are  very 
self-assertive,  driving  away  all  other  birds  from 
their  prey.  They  build  enormous  nests  of  sticks 
in  bushes  and  trees,  thus  differing  from  the 
vultures  previously  described,  which  generally 
nest  on  ledges  of  rock  on  precipitous  cliffs. 
These  nests  are  made  of  sticks,  lined  with 
straw  and  leaves.  A  single  egg  is  laid,  which 
is  white  with  red  markings.  The  largest 
species  rivals  the  condor  in  size. 

The  EGYPTIAN  VULTURE,  sometimes 
known  as  PHARAOH'S  HEN,  is  the  smallest  of 
the  vultures.  The  plumage  is  white ;  the  head, 
throat,  and  fore  part  of  the  neck  are  naked 
and  of  a  lemon-yellow  colour;  whilst  the  feet 
are  pink  and  the  eyes  crimson.  Not  only  is  it  a 
carrion-feeder,  but  it  will  also  follow  the  plough, 
picking  up  worms  and  grubs.  This  species 
occurs  in  Europe,  breeding  in  Provence  and 
Savoy,  the  Madeiras,  Cape  Verde,  the  Canaries, 
North  and  South  Africa,  and  India.  On  three 
occasions  it  has  wandered  to  Great  Britain. 

We  pass  now  to  the  EAGLES,  a  group 
the  exact  limits  of  which  it  is  impossible  to 
define,  since  the  forms  so  designated  merge 
insensibly  into  Buzzards,  Hawks,  Harriers,  and 
so  forth. 

Eagles  occur  all  over  the  world,  save  only 
in  New  Zealand.  An  eagle,  it  is  interesting 
to  note,  is  the  bird  of  Jove,  the  emblem  of 
St.  John  and  Rome,  and  at  the  present  day 
of  the  American  Republic.  It  also  plays  an 
emblematic  part  in  German}-,  Austria,  and 
Russia. 

Of  the  true  eagles,  perhaps  the  best 
known  is  the  GOLDEN  EAGLE,  or  MOIMAIN- 
KAI;LE — a  British  bird,  breeding  still,  though 
in  diminishing  numbers,  in  Scotland.  In 
Ireland  it  is  fast  verging  on  extinction, 
trap,  gun,  and  poison  having  wrought  its 
destruction.  In  times  past  it  bred  in  tin: 
Lake  District  of  England.  It  is  found  over 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  Northern  AM.I, 
India  and  China,  and  Northern  Africa,  and 
America  as  far  south  as  Mexico.  It  i^  .1 
very  fierce  and  powerful  bird,  attacking  such 


Hiu  k)  SiMtitll  fit,!,.  C«.]  [ftntn'i  Gr 

GRIFFON-VULTURE 

One  of  the  largest  of  the  •vultures 


Hull  h  Slltiltitii    Mi:..    I- 


RUPPELL'S    VUI.TURK 
An  African  species,  timely  allied  it  tke [rijf '/>* 


BIRDS     OF     PREY    AND    OWLS 


8l 


large  animals  as  antelopes,  wolves,  and  foxes,  as  well  as  the  more  helpless  fawns,  lambs,  hares 

and  rabbits,  and  ducks,  geese,  grouse,  and  so  on. 

Very   different  from  the  free-roving  golden  eagle  and   its  allies  is   the  South   American 

HARPY-EAGLE.     This  is  a  denizen  of  the  forest,  of  great  size  and  enormous  strength,  as  the 

powerful  bill  and  feet  testify.  Whilst  other 
eagles  are  conspicuous  for  their  powers  of  flight, 
the  present  species  is  rarely  seen  on  the  wing, 
being  strictly  a  forest-dweller,  with  short  wings 
and  tail,  and  of  a  somewhat  owl-like  plumage, 
the  feathers  being  very  soft.  At  rest  it  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  of  all  the  eagles.  The 
head  is  crested,  the  under  parts  of  the  body  are 
white,  and  the  upper  dark  grey,  banded  with 
black.  It  feeds  upon  sloths,  peccaries,  and  spider- 
monkeys. 

So  recently  as  1897  another  forest-dwelling 
species  was  discovered  in  the  Philippines,  and  this 
also  preys  largely  upon  monkeys.  Its  nearest 
'ally  is  apparently  the  harpy-eagle,  and,  like  this 
species,  it  is  a  bird  of  large  size  and  very 


Phtto  ty  Schtlastic  Pheto.  Co.]  [Farten'i  Green 

ANGOLAN    VULTURE 

A  common  West  African  hird,  living  upon  fish  and  carrion 

powerful.  It  is  further  remarkable  for  the 
enormous  size  of  the  beak,  which  differs  from 
that  of  all  other  members  of  this  group  in  being 
much  compressed  from  side  to  side. 

The  sea,  as  well  as  the  mountain  and  the 
forest,  is  also,  as  it  were,  presided  over  by 
members  of  this  group,  which  are  in  consequence 
called  SEA-EAGLES.  One  species,  the  WHITE- 
TAILED  EAGLE,  OR  ERNE,  is  reckoned  among 
British  birds,  though  it  is  fast  verging  on 
extinction.  In  former  days  it  bred  on  the  sea- 
cliffs  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  in  the  Lake 
District.  The  nest,  or  eyrie,  as  it  is  called,  is 
commonly  placed  on  inaccessible  cliffs,  but  some- 
times on  the  ground  or  in  a  tree,  and,  as  is 
usual  with  the  group,  is  made  of  sticks,  with 
a  lining  of  finer  materials.  This  eagle  feeds 
principally  upon  fish,  though  hares,  lambs,  and  rabbits  and  carrion  are  occasionally  taken. 

The  Hawk  Tribe,  generally  speaking,  have  the  wings  comparatively  short,  the  legs  long 
and  slender,  and  the  edges  of  the  beak  with  a  sinuous  outline  and  unnotched ;  but  it  is 
impossible  to  sharply  define  the  group.  The  best-known  species  are  the  SPARROW-  and  Gos- 
HAWKS.  The  first  named  is  still  a  common  British  bird,  but  the  latter  has  now  become  very 


bj  W.  P.  Dandt,  F.Z.S.~\  [Ktgint'i  Park 

PONDICHERRY    VULTURE 

This  Indian  species  is  remarkable  for  the  loose  fans  of  skin  'which 
hang  down  on  each  side  of  the  head 


82 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


rare  indeed.  In  both  species 
the  male  is  a  much  smaller 
bird  than  the  female,  and  is 
also  more  brightly  coloured. 
The  Gos-HAWK  was  at  one 
time  used  in  falconry;  it  is 
a  bird  of  extremely  ferocious 
disposition,  and  in  the  days 
when  hawks  were  used  for 
sporting  purposes  had  to  be 
kept  very  safely  tethered,  as, 
if  it  gained  its  liberty,  it 
would  at  once  proceed  to  kill 
every  other  hawk  and  falcon 
in  the  "  mews." 

The  Falcon  Tribe  is 
divisible  into  two  sections  — 
the  one  containing  the  Ameri- 
can CARRION-HAWKS,  and 
the  other  the  FALCONS. 

The  CARRION-HAWKS,  or 
CARACARAS,  are  long-legged 
birds  which  spend  most  of 
their  time  on  the  ground  and 
run  well.  They  are  said  to 
hunt,  not  seldom  in  packs, 
after  the  fashion  of  wild  dogs. 
One  species  at  least  affords  an 
admirable  example  of  mim- 
icry—  so  rare  among  birds. 
This  is  the  CURASSOW-HAWK, 
so  called  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  curassow,  one  of  the 


/•*•<•  tf 


[Rtgtnt'i  Part 


EGYPTIAN   VULTURE 

This  it  one  of  the  foulest  feeders  of  the  Culture  Trlbt 


WEDGE-TAILED   EAGLE 

This  is  an  Australian  sfeciei,  fa ding  chief y  upon  carrion 


Game-birds.  The  resemblance  is 
evidently  advantageous,  for  there- 
by the  hawk  is  enabled  to  sit 
quietly  at  rest  till  its  prey  comes 
within  easy  reach,  mistaking  the 
hawk  for  the  inoffensive  curassow. 
Tin-  F\i  CONS  form  an  ex- 
•  Hngly  interesting  group,  if 
only  on  account  of  the  part 
which  they  played  in  the  sports  of 
media-val  Kngland.  Birds  of  large 
sixe  and  forms  as  >mall  as  sparrows 
are  included  within  the  group  ;  all 
are  very  powerful  on  the  wing, 
and  all  feed  on  living  prey, 
though,  in  the  case  of  the  di- 
minutive forms,  this  may  consist 


BIRDS     OF     PREY    AND    OWLS 


mainly,  if  not  entirely,  of  insects.  The  members  of 
the  Falcon  Tribe  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
majority  of  the  larger  hawks  by  the  fact  that  the 
eyes  are  dark  hazel-brown  instead  of  yellow,  and 
that  the  bare,  yellow,  waxy-looking  band  of  skin  at 
the  base  of  the  beak,  so  characteristic  of  the  Birds 
of  Prey,  is  not  sharply  defined,  but  scantily  clothed 
with  fine  bristles,  passing  insensibly  into  the  feathers 
of  the  crown  of  the  head. 

Some  of  the  best-known  members  of  this  section 
of  the  group  are  the  PEREGRINE  and  JER-FALCONS, 
and  the  KESTREL,  HOBBY,  and  MERLIN.  Only  the 
peregrine  and  the  kestrel,  however,  can  now  be  called 
common. 

The  PEREGRINE  is  the  falcon  held  so  much  in 
esteem  by  falconers,  by  whom  the  female  only  was 
called  the  "falcon,"  the  male,  which  is  smaller,  being 
known  as  a  "tiercel."  The  female  was  used  for  the 
capture  of  the  larger  game,  such  as  herons  and  rooks ; 
whilst  the  male  was  flown  only  at  partridges,  and 
sometimes  magpies. 

In  a  wild  state  the  peregrine  falcon  is  regarded 
by  other  birds  with  the  greatest  fear  and  terror. 
Ducks  feeding  on  the  banks  of  streams  or  lakes,  on 
perceiving  it,  immediately  take  to  the  water ;  whilst 
plovers  and  lapwings  rise  to  an  immense  height  in 

the  air,and 
remain 
there  for 
hours.  Mr. 
U  s  s  h  e  r, 


Ph,t,  bf  W.  f.  Dando,  F.Z.S.]  lR<eint'i  farl. 

ROUGH-LEGGED    BUZZARD 

Frequent  in  the  British  Islands 


Phot,  bf  If.  P.  DanJi,  F.Z.S. 

MARTIAL   HAWK-EAGLE 

Tke  Haivk-eagles  show  a  marked  preference  for 
•woody  districts 


who  has  had  many  opportunities  of  studying  this  bird 
in  Ireland,  where  it  is  quite  common,  relates  an  in- 
stance of  the  tenacity  with  which  it  follows  its  prey, 
in  this  case  a  lapwing.  "The  falcon,"  he  says,  "after 
several  stoops,  cleverly  avoided  by  the  lapwing,  was 
so  near  clutching,  that  the  poor  bird,  quite  worn  out, 
dropped  into  the  water,  and  the  falcon,  after  rising 
from  her  stoop,  poised  a  moment  on  her  wings,  and 
then  quietly  lowering  herself  with  extended  legs,  lifted 
the  lapwing  from  the  water  and  bore  her  off." 

The  eyrie  is  generally  found  half-way  up  some 
precipitous  cliff:  no  nest  is  made,  but  the  eggs  are 
laid  on  the  earth  or  gravel  covering  the  selected  ledge. 
When  eggs  are  found  in  a  nest,  the  latter  has  always 
been  taken  from  some  other  bird,  even  the  eagle  being 
occasionally  dispossessed.  Three  or  four  eggs  are  laid, 
which  are  very  beautiful  and  variable  in  their  colora- 
tion. The  young  are  attended  by  their  parents  long 
after  they  are  able  to  fly. 

The  JER-FALCONS  are  birds  of  large  size  and  great 


84 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


By  ftrmitiitf.  •/  firty  Lttfh  fimlrrttn^  Ktg. 

PEREGRINE    FALCON 

Jlfavouriu  in  falconry 

is  proved  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  seldom  found  dead 
from  eating  poisoned  rats  laid 
out  for  magpies.  One  in- 
stance is  on  record  where  a 
kestrel  was  taken  with  its 
claws  entangled  in  the  fur  of 
a  stoat,  which  fiercely  de- 
fended itself. 

Of  the  PYGMY  FALCONS 
there  are  several  species, 
ranging  from  the  eastern 
Himalaya,  through  Tenas- 
serim  and  Burma,  to  the 
Malay  Islands  and  the  Phil- 
ippines. The  smallest  is  the 
RED-LEGGED  FALCONET  of 
Nepal,  Sikhim,  and  Burma. 
It  feeds  largely  upon  insects, 
such  as  dragon-flies,  beetle-., 
and  butterflies,  hawking  them 
with  a  swallow-like  speed. 
'  ><  i  asionally  the  members  of 
this  little  group  are  said  to 


beauty,  and  at  one  time  were  much  in  request  by 
falconers,  probably  largely  on  account  of  their 
appearance,  for  they  lack  the  power  and  spirit  of 
the  peregrine,  (irey  and  black  and  white  and 
black  are  distinctive  colours  of  the  various 
species,  which  are  inhabitants  of  northern 
regions. 

The  KESTREL,  or  WIND-IKIVEK.  is  one  of 
the  commonest  birds  of  prey,  much  and  most 
unjustly  persecuted  by  gamekeepers.  Like  the 
peregrine  falcon,  the  kestrel  does  not  build  a 
nest,  but  takes  possession  of  the  deserted  nests 
of  crows  and  magpies,  or  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
bare  earth  of  a  recess  in  some  cliff  or  quarry 
which  is  overhung  by  a  projecting  shelf  of  rnrk. 
Occasionally  a  hole  in  a  tree  is  chosen,  the 
then  resting  on  the  rotten  wood  at  the  bottom. 
That  the  kestrel  is  of  a  more  confiding  .li-po-i 
tion  than  the  majority  of  its  tribe  seems  to  be 
proved  by  the  fact  that  it  will  often  deposit  its 
eggs  in  nesting-boxes,  if  these  are  placed  in  suit- 
able spots. 

The  food  of  the  kestrel  appears  to  COHMM 
mainly  of  mice,  but  frogs,  earthworms,  grass- 
hoppers, cockchafers,  and  other  beetles  are  also 
taken.  Kestrels  will  also  eat  dead  animals,  as 


/  /!•/*  if    Ottimar 


SPECTAC1  in  OWL 

A  South  American  bird  vittk  a  wmrwkat  rcmartatli  cclorj 


BIRDS    OF    PREY    AND    OWLS 


hunt  down  and  kill  birds  larger  than  themselves. 

OWLS. 

FEW  birds  have  been  more  misrepresented  in 
literature  than  the  OWLS.  For  centuries  they  have 
been  depicted  as  birds  of  ill  omen,  and  accused  of 
all  kinds  of  diabolical  practices.  Shakespeare,  for 
example,  repeatedly  makes  the  owl  do  duty  for 
some  evil  sign,  or  fulfil  some  dire  purpose.  Thus 
in  Macbeth,  Act  II.,  Scene  ii., 

It  was  the  owl  that  shriek'd,  the  fatal  bellman, 
Which  gives  the  stern'st  good-night. 

And  later  on,  in  Act  IV.,  it  is  an  owl's  wing  which 
he  makes  the  witches  add  to  their  caldron  of  noi- 
some things,  when  brewing  their  deadly  potion. 
In  Spain  the  scops  and  tawny  owls  are  believed  to 
be  devil's  birds,  and  are  accused  of  drinking  the 
oil  from  the  lamps  suspended  before  the  shrines 
of  saints.  The  gamekeeper  nails  their  bodies  up 
on  the  barn  door  as  offenders  of  the  worst  type, 
whilst  the  Malagasy  believe  owls  to  be  the  embodi- 
ments of  evil  spirits. 


Phati  kj  ff.  F.  DanJi,  F.Z..?.]  [Rtgtnt's  tarlt 

TAWNY    OWL 

One  of  the  commonest  British  owls 


Phttt  by  C.  M  Mavroytnt]  [Smyrna 

EAGLE-OWL 

One  of  the  largest  owls 


It  is  therefore  a  relief  to  find  this  unwarrantable 
prejudice  is  not  absolutely  universal,  since  amongst 
some  people,  at  least,  the  owl  has  found  some  favour. 
The  best-known  instance  of  this  is  the  case  of  the 
Greeks,  who  made  the  owl  the  symbol  of  wisdom,  and 
chose  as  an  emblem,  singularly  enough,  the  species 
known  as  the  Little  Owl,  a  bird  which  is  notorious  for 
its  ludicrous  behaviour,  so  much  so  that  it  has  earned 
for  itself  the  reputation  of  being  the  veritable  buffoon 
of  birds.  Its  grotesque  and  ridiculous  antics  are 
utilised  by  Continental  bird-catchers,  who  use  it  as  a 
lure  to  attract  small  birds,  tethering  it  for  this  pur- 
pose near  nets,  snares,  or  twigs  smeared  with  bird-lime. 

Amongst  other  birds,  strangely  enough,  the  owl 
appears  to  be  as  much  disliked  as  the  fiercer  and  more 
dangerous  members  of  the  Hawk  Tribe,  and  in  con- 
sequence, should  one  venture  abroad  during  the  day 
or  be  discovered  in  its  retreat,  the  alarm  is  given,  and 
every  small  bird  within  call  is  summoned  to  take  part 
in  a  general  mobbing. 

Although  proverbially  unpalatable,  the  Little  Owl 


86          THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  said  to  be  eaten  in  Italy,  as  are  other  species  in  the  various  countries  in  which  they  are 
found. 

Varying  considerably  in  size,  the  owls,  nevertheless,  present  a  very  general  uniformity  in 
appearance.  All  are  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  softness  of  their  plumage,  which  imparts  to  the 
wings  the  almost  unique  power  of  absolutely  silent  flight,  the  sound  being  deadened  or  muffled, 
so  that  the  prey  can  be  approached  suddenly,  and  seized  before  escape  is  possible.  This  is  very 
necessary  when  hunting  in  twilight  hours.  The  owls  are  almost  the  only  birds  in  which  the 
outer  toe  is  reversible,  or  capable  of  being  turned  either  forwards  or  backwards.  Furthermore, 
the  members  of  this  group  are  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  the  eyes  look  directly  forward, 
instead  of  outwards,  as  in  other  birds,  and  that  the  feathers  of  the  face  are  arranged  round 
each  eye  in  the  form  of  a  disk,  and  thus  impart  the  familiar  owl-like  visage,  seen  elsewhere 
only  among  certain  of  the  Hawk  Tribe  known  as  "Harriers." 

We  may  regard  as  the  typical  owl  the  species  known  as  the  TAWNY  or  WOOD-OWL.  The 
benefits  it  confers  are  great,  but,  unfortunately,  unrecognized,  for  its  chief  food  consists  of  rats 
and  mice.  This  is  the  bird  which  gives  utterance  to  that  weird  "hoo-hoo — hoo-hoo-hoo,"  one 
of  the  most  charming  of  the  many  delightful  sounds  that  break  the  stillness  of  the  summer 
nights. 

Other  common  species  are  the  LONG-  and  SHORT-EARED  OWLS,  both  remarkable  for  the 
fact  that  the  aperture  of  the  ear,  which  is  of  enormous  size,  is  of  a  different  shape  on  the  right 
and  left  sides  of  the  head.  These  owls,  furthermore,  are  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a 
pair  of  feathery  tufts,  or  "horns,"  springing  from  the  top  of  the  head,  which  can  be  erected  or 
depressed  at  pleasure.  These  horns  are  found  in  many  species  of  owl  not  necessarily  closely 
related.  The  species  under  consideration  are  of  medium  size,  with  large  eyes  of  a  most  wonderful 
golden-yellow  colour,  standing  in  strong  contrast  with  those  of  the  tawny  owl,  which  are  nearly 
black.  Like  the  tawny  owl,  these  two  species,  and  especially  the  short-eared,  live  largely  on  rats 
and  mice.  The  last-named  bird  also  devours  great  numbers  of  dor  beetles  and  cockchafer-. 

Amongst  the  largest  of  the  tribe  are  the  EAGLE-  and  SNOWY  OWLS.  The  eagle-owl  may  be 
described  as  a  largely  magnified  long-eared  owl  in  general  appearance,  though,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  two  are  not  very  closely  related.  The  snowy  owl,  as  its  name  implies,  is  white  in 
colour,  the  white  being  relieved  by  more  or  less  conspicuous  black  markings.  This  white  livery, 
assimilating  with  its  snowy  surroundings,  allows  the  wearer  to  approach  its  prey  unperceived 
on  the  snow.  Whilst  the  snowy  owl  is  confined  to  northern  regions,  the  eagle-owl  enjoys  a 
wide  distribution.  The  larger  species  of  eagle-owl  are  the  most  ferocious  members  of  the  order, 
and  prey  largely  upon  hares,  rabbits,  and  the  large  gamebirds :  whilst  the  snowy  owl.  though 
selecting  similar  prey,  does  incalculable  good  by  devouring  those  destructive  little  rodents  known 
as  the  lemmings. 

The  species  known  as  PYGMY  OWLS  and  LITTLE  OWLS  we  mention  here  only  on  account 
of  their  small  size,  one  member  of  the  former  group  being  little  bigger  than  a  lark.  Thus 
they  stand  in  strong  contrast  with  the  giant  snowy  and  eagle-owls. 


CHAPTER    X 

NIGHT-JARS,   SWIFTS,   AND   HUMMING-BIRDS 


NIGHT-JARS 

IT  is  probable  that  the  NlGHT-JARS  are  the 
nearest  allies  of  the  Owls.     As  pointed  out 
in    the    last   chapter,    although    the    latter 
have  acquired  the  habits  of  the  Hawk  and  Eagle 
Tribe,  they  are  not  really  connected   with   that 
group  by  descent. 

Soberly  clad,  so  as  to  be  in  complete  harmony 
with  its  surroundings,  with  large  eyes,  huge 
mouth,  and  peculiarly  short  beak,  beset  with 
long  bristles,  the  night-jar  may  be  distinguished 
at  once  from  all  other  British  birds.  By  day  it 
hides,  squatting  close  to  the  ground,  or  perched 
on  the  thick  branch  of  a  tree ;  but  when  on  the 
latter,  it  sits  along  and  not  across  the  bough, 
like  other  birds,  the  complete  harmony  between 
its  plumage  and  the  bark  rendering  it  as  invisible 
as  when  on  the  ground. 

Not  until  the  spring  has  far  advanced  does 
this  bird  leave  its  winter  resort  in  Africa  for 
Europe,  making  its  presence  known  by  its  con- 
spicuous habit  of  hunting  its  food  (which  consists 
of  moths  and  beetles)  after  twilight  has  fallen.  Later,  its  extraordinary  churring  note  is  heard 


i  ty  A.  S.  Rudland  &>  Sim 

COMMON    NIGHT-JAR 

Known  also  as  Fern-owl  and  Goat-sucker 


ftim  t;  A.  S.  Kudland  6"  Stni 

PENNANT-WINGED    NIGHT-JAR    (FRONT    VIEW) 

T/u  long  and  graceful  flumes  arc  much-lengthened  quill-feather  t,  and  by  their  resemblance  to  the  -waving  grass  in  -which  the  bird  nesti  afford 

frotection  . 

87 


88 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


a  note  which  has  been  likened  to  the  noise  made  by  a  spinning-wheel,  and  so  powerful  as  to 
be  audible  half  a  mile  off.  This  note  is  made  while  on  the  ground  :  on  the  wing,  while  toying 
with  its  mate,  another  equally  peculiar  sound  is  made,  which  has  been  likened  to  the  noise 
made  by  swinging  a  whip-thong  through  the  air. 

No  nest  is  made  by  this  bird;  but  the  eggs,  two  in  number  and  beautifully  marked, 
are  laid  on  the  bare  ground.  The  young  are  covered  with  down,  and  remain  in  tin:  n.-^t 
for  some  time. 

Another  very  remarkable  feature  is  the  fact  that  the  claw  of  the  middle  toe  has  its  inner 
edge  curiously  serrated,  forming  a  sort  of  comb,  the  function  of  which  is  unknown.  This 
comb-like  claw  occurs  also  in  some  few  other  birds  —  bitterns,  for  instance. 

A  very  remarkable  kind  is  the  l'i  \\  \\T-\VI.\CKD  NIGHT-JAR,  in  which  one  of  the  qnill- 
feathers  in  each  wing  is  produced  into  a  "  pennant "  of  some  17  inches  in  length.  The  shaft 
of  the  feather  is  bare  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  and  terminates  in  a  feathery  blade. 
It  is  an  Abyssinian  species  about  which  not  much  is  known. 

Some  of  the  night-jars,  as  the 
New  World  XK;HT-HAWK  and  the 
OldWorld  EAKI:I>  XH.IIT  i  \ks,;u-c 
particularly owl-like,a  resemblance 
imparted  by  long  "  ear-like  "  tufts 
of  feathers  which  rise  from  i  In- 
back  of  the  head.  Others,  .is 
the  MORK-i'ORK  of  the  Tasmanian 
colonists,  or  the  Fko<,-\ii  >rrn,  as  it 
is  called  in  Australia,  are  remark- 
able for  the  huge  size  of  the 
mouth,  bounded,  as  it  appears  to 
be,  by  huge  lips,  represented  by 
the  short,  round-edged  beak. 

Very  nearly  related  to  the 
night-jars  is  the  OII.-WRD  of  South 
America,  which  lives  in  caves  in 
Trinidad, Ecuador, and  Peru,  where 
it  builds  a  nest  which  has  been 
likened  in  appearance  to  a  huge 
cheese,  and  in  which  are  laid  from 
two  to  four  white  eggs.  Like  the 
night-jars,  these  birds  feed  l>y 
night,  emerging  from  their  gloomy 
Their  food,  however,  is  entirely 


/>*•««  I?  if. 


,  F.Z.S.] 

MORE-PORKS 

So  called  from  the  note  tkey  utter 


[Mllftrd-m-Sia 


retreats  at  twilight  with  much  noise  and  in  great  numbers, 
of  a  vegetable  nature,  consisting  of  oily  nuts  or  fruits. 

The  young,  soon  after  they  are  hatched,  become  perfect  masses  of  fat,  and  on  this  account 
are  much  in  demand  by  the  Indians,  who  make  a  special  business  of  killing  them  and  extracting 


the  oil. 


Swu  is 


In  general  appearance  SWIFTS  bcara  strong  superficial  resemblance  to  Swallows;  in  reality 
they  are  related,  not  to  those  harbingers  of  spring,  but  to  the  Night-jars  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  Humming-birds  on  the  other. 

The  COMMON  SWIFT  arrives  in  England  during  the  early  part  of  May.  and  stays  till 
the  end  of  August,  or  sometimes  till  September  has  half  run  its  course.  Black  in  colour, 
relieved  only  by  a  white  throat,  it  has  little  in  the  sense  of  beauty  to  recommend  it; 
nevertheless,  there  are  probably  few  who  do  not  cherish  tender  feelings  towards  this  bird 


NIGHT-JARS,     SWIFTS,     AND    HUMMING-BIRDS     89 


SWIFT 
A  common  British  bird  during  the  summer  months 


[Btrkhamiltd 


The  swift  has  great  buoyancy  of  spirits,  as  is  manifested  by  the  wild,  exuberant  bursts  of 
screaming  to  which  it  gives  voice  as  it  rushes  in  small  parties  down  the  lanes  or  along  the 
less-frequented  thoroughfares  of  towns  as  morning  breaks  or  evening  falls,  and  occasionally 
throughout  the  day.  The  greater  part  of  its  life  is  spent  upon  the  wing  (indeed,  it  appears 
to  rest  only  when  incubating  or  sleeping),  and  of  all  the  smaller  birds  it  is  the  most  graceful 
in  flight,  turning  and  twisting  in  fairy  mazes  high  in  the  heavens  for  hours  at  a  time. 

The  swift  chooses  for  its  nesting-place  the  eaves  of  houses  and  holes  in  church  towers,  and 
occasionally  a  crevice  in  the  face  of  a  quarry.  The  nest  is  formed  of  bits  of  straw,  dry  grass, 
and  a  few  feathers,  glued  together  by  a  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands  into  a  compact  crust ; 
in  this  the  bird  deposits  from  two  to  four  white  eggs.  The  young,  which  are  hatched  naked 
and  blind,  never  develop  down-feathers,  but  soon  become  more  or  less  imperfectly  clothed  in 
a  mass  of  tiny  spines,  representing  the  budding  feathers ;  these  give  the  bird  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  a  young  hedgehog. 

In  adaptation  to  its  remarkable  powers  of  flight,  the  wing  has  undergone  considerable 
modification  in  form,  so  that  it  differs  from  that  of  all  other  birds.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  legs,  being  so  little  required,  have  diminished  considerably,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
smallness  —  a  fact  which  hampers  the  bird  considerably,  should  it  happen  to  alight  on  level 
ground,  for,  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the  wings,  it  can  arise  only  with  considerable  difficulty. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  common  swift  is  SALVIX'S  S\VIFT,  remarkable  on  account  of  its  nest, 
which  has  been  described  by  Dr.  Sharpe  as  the  most  wonderful  in  the  world.  About  2  feet 
long  and  6  inches  in  diameter,  it  looks  rather  like  the  sleeve  of  an  old  coat  than  a  nest. 
It  is  made  entirely  of  the  downy  seeds  of  plants,  which,  floating  through  the  air  after  the 
fashion  of  such  seeds,  are  caught  by  the  birds  when  on  the  wing,  and,  partly  felted  and 
partly  glued  by  the  salivary  secretion,  are  woven  slowly  into  the  characteristic  woolly  domicile. 
The  site  and  manner  of  fixation  of  the  nest  are  scarcely  less  wonderful,  for  it  is  suspended 
from  the  flat  surface  of  some  projecting  piece  of  rock  on  the  face  of  a  cliff,  and  is  thus 
almost  inaccessible;  yet,  as  if  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure,  two  entrances  are  made,  one  at 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


the  bottom,  which  is  really  blind,  and  one  at  the  top,  near  its  foundation,  if  we  may  call  it 
so,  which  leads  into  the  nursery. 

Still  more  swallow-like  in  general  appearance  are  the  diminutive  EniKLE  SWIFTS,  so  called, 
not  on  account  of  the  palatability  of  the  birds  themselves,  but  of  their  nests,  which  are  in 
great  demand  by  the  wealthy  Chinese  for  conversion  into  birds'-nest  soup.  It  has  already 
been  remarked  that  the  salivary  glands  are  unusually  active  in  the  swifts,  their  secretion 
bearing  a  very  important  part  in  the  construction  of  the  nest,  and  serving  as  a  kind  of 
cement.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  in  some  members  of  the  group  we  find  this 
secretion  playing  a  still  more  prominent  part,  forming,  at  least  in  one  species,  the  entire 
material  of  the  nest.  "  With  these  nests,"  writes  Dr.  Sharpe,  "  a  large  trade  is  done  with  China 
from  many  of  the  Malavan  Islands,  over  3,500,000  nests  having  been  known  to  be  exported 
in  a  single  year  from  Borneo  to  the  latter  country. 
...  In  Borneo  and  other  places  the  caves  in  which 
the  swiftlets  build  are  leased  to  the  collectors  for  a 
considerable  sum ;  but  it  is  only  the  white  nests,  made 
of  the  pure  secretion,  which  are  of  any  real  value. 
The  nests  of  those  species  which  mix  into  their  nests 
grass  or  feathers  are  not  appreciated  as  an  article  of 
commerce." 

Colonel  Legge  gives  some  extremely  interesting 
particulars  concerning  the  nesting  habits  of  these  birds 
in  Ceylon.  "  It  is  noteworthy,"  he  writes,  "  that  the 
partially  fledged  young  —  which  were  procured  on  this 
occasion  for  me,  and  which  I  kept  for  the  night  — 
scrambled  out  on  to  the  exterior  of  the  nest,  and  slept 
in  an  upright  position,  with  the  bill  pointing  straight 
up.  This  is  evidently  the  normal  mode  of  roosting 
resorted  to  by  this  species.  The  interior  of  this  cave, 
with  its  numbers  of  active  tenants,  presented  a  singular 
appearance.  The  bottom  was  filled  with  a  vast  deposit 
of  liquid  guano,  reaching,  I  was  informed,  to  a  depth 
of  30  feet,  and  composed  of  droppings,  old  nests,  and 
dead  young  fallen  from  above,  the  whole  mingled 
into  a  loathsome  mass,  with  water  lodged  in  the 
crevices,  and  causing  an  awful  stench,  which  would 
have  been  intolerable  for  a  moment  even,  had  not 
the  hundreds  of  frightened  little  birds,  as  they 
screamed  and  whirred  in  and  out  of  the  gloomy  cave 
with  a  hum  like  a  storm  in  a  ship's  rigging,  power- 
fully excited  my  interest,  and  produced  a  long 
examination  of  the  colony.  This  guano-deposit  is  a 

source  of  considerable  profit  to  the  estate,  the  hospitable  manager  of  which  informed  us  that 
he  had  manured  100  acres  of  coffee  with  it  during  that  season." 

HUMMING-BIRDS 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  HrM\n\<;-ifiKi>s  are  nearly  related  to  Swifts,  with  which, 
however,  they  stand  in  the  strongest  possible  contrast  in  the  matter  of  plumage  —  the  latter 
being  always  inconspicuously  coloured,  whilst  the  former  are  for  the  nn>>t  part  clad  in  vestments 
so  gorgeous  as  to  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  describe  them  in  ^>l>rr  language.  Moreover, 
so  great  is  the  wealth  of  species  —  some  hundreds  in  number — and  so  varied  are  the  form  and 
coloration,  and  so  closely  do  the  various  types  pass  one  into  the  other,  that  their  classification 
is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty. 


i  ly  A.  S.  R*dU*d  V  I,KI 

1  DIBLE    SWIFT 

Tht  unit  ef  tkn  bird  art  ttud  ft,r  icup  j  Jivi  an  urn  in 
thh  pfictoprapk 


CHAPTER     XI 

PARROTS,    CUCKOOS,   AND   PLANTAIN-EATERS 


PARROTS 

THE  art  of  taming  wild  animals,"  writes  Mr.  Jenks  in  his  "  History  of  Politics,"  •'  and 
making  them  serve  the  purposes  of  man,  is  one  of  the  greatest  discoveries  of  the 
world."     He  holds  —  and  there  can  be  little  question  as  to  its  reasonableness — •"  that 
the  domestication  of  animals  converted  the  savage  pack  into  the  patriarchal  tribe,"  and  that 
the  earliest  domesticated  animals  were  pets.     How  great  a  share,   then,   PARROTS   may  have 
had  in  this  civilisation  and  advancement  no  man  can  tell,  for  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  long 
these  beautiful   birds  may   have   been  esteemed  as  pets,  or  how  early  they  were  introduced 
to  the  notice  of  the  civilised  peoples   of  past   generations.     Certain   it   is,  however,   that   for 
more  than  2,000  years  they  have  been  held  in  the  highest  esteem. 

Modern  discovery  has  added  enormously  to  the  list  of  known  parrots,  so  that  to-day  more 
than  500  different  species  have  been  described,  and  these  may  be  divided  into  NESTORS,  LORIES, 
COCKATOOS,  COCKATEELS,  MACAWS,  and  KAKAPOS. 


Phut  bj  W.  JJ.M] 


*ju',  A'.*. 


KEA 

kno'wn  as  the  Jlfountain-nestor 

91 


-92 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Pha*  bj  D.  Li  S,u>r-\ 


[M,, 


NEW    ZEALAND    KEA 

Tht  kea  frequents  the  slopes  of  lofty  inoiu-fovered  mountains 


Of  the  first  named,  the  best  known  is  the  KEA,  or  Morxi AIX-NESTOR,  of  the  South 
Island,  New  Zealand.  Dull  in  coloration,  and,  not  striking  in  appearance,  it  has  earned  an 
unenviable  notoriety,  which  appears  to  rest  as  much  upon  fable  as  upon  fact.  It  seems  that, 
since  the  introduction  of  sheep  into  this  part  of  the  world  by  the  settlers,  this  bird  has 
found  a  diet  of  flesh  more  stimulating  than  one  of  fruit.  Kxactly  how  this  came  to  be  is 
not  known.  Two  explanations  have  been  advanced.  The  first  lias  it  that  the  birds  settled 
on  the  skins  of  the  sheep  slaughtered  for  their  wool,  and  picked  off  piivrs  of  fat  therefrom, 
as  well  as  various  tit-bits  from  the  carcases  of  the  same,  and  thus  found  out  how  toothsome  — 
or  beaksome  —  mutton  was.  From  this  they  went  a  step  further,  and  did  the  slaughtering 
for  themselves.  Parties  of  them  now  go  a-hunting,  worry  a  sheep  till  exhausted,  then  dig 
down  through  the  back,  and  so  wound  the  intestines  that  death  results.  Another  explanation 
is  that  the  birds  in  the  original  instance  mistook  the  sheep's  backs  for  the  huge  masses 
of  lichen  common  to  this  region,  of  which  the  birds  are  very  fond.  Not  finding  it  to 
their  taste  at  the  top,  they  dug  deep,  and  soon  came  to  the  flesh,  which,  like  the  forbidden 
fruit,  proved  more  palatable  than  that  which  was  provided  for  them  by  a  bountiful  Nature. 
The  result  is,  that  they  have  become  a  menace  to  sheep-farmers,  and  are  on  this  account  in 
danger  of  extermination.  It  has,  however,  been  denied  recently  that  the  damage  inflicted 
is  anything  like  so  serious  as  was  at  one  time  reported,  since  on  one  run,  where  the 
damage  was  unusually  large,  only  I  in  300  sheep  was  so  attacked.  This  bird  has  also  been 
said  to  attack  horses. 

Very  different,  in  general  appearance  and  in  esteem,  are  the  LORIES.  Like  the  Nestors, 
the  tip  of  the  upper  jaw,  or  beak,  is  smooth,  or  nearly  so;  and  in  this  respect  these  two 
groups  are  to  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  parrots;  but  in  the  gorgeousness  of  their 
plumage  they  far  eclipse  their  congeners.  Absent  in  New  Zealand,  they  are  found  elsewhere 


PARROTS,    CUCKOOS,    AND    PLANTAIN-EATERS        93 


' 

.'I:  "-.-..**  '-> 


[Melbournt, 


NEW    ZEALAND    KAKA 

The  Maoris  keep  thii  bird  as  a  lure 


throughout  the  Australasian  region, 
inclusive  of  Polynesia,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  as  pets,  combining  great  beauty 
with  a  very  docile  disposition  and  con- 
siderable talking  powers. 

The  birds  of  this  section  are  also 
known  as  BRUSH-TONGUED  PARROTS, 
from  the  presence  of  a  remarkable 
"  brush  "  borne  on  the  end  of  the  tongue. 
This  is  a  special  adaptation,  enabling  the 
birds  to  feed  upon  honey ;  some,  indeed, 
have  this  brush  particularly  well  de- 
veloped, and  are  almost  entirely  honey- 
seekers,  whilst  others,  wherein  the  brush 
is  less  developed,  live  largely  on  fruits. 
Professor  Moseley  tells  us  that  honey 
literally  poured  from  the  mouths  of 
BLUE  MOUNTAIN-LORIES  which  he  shot 
at  Cape  York. 

The  COCKATOOS  areabundantin  the 
Australian  region,  but  have  their  head- 
quarters in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Besides  the  familiar  white-crested  form  so  commonly  kept 
in  England,  the  group  includes  an  iron-grey  coloured  bird  with  a  bright  red  head,  and  a  huge 
black  species,  which  represents  the  giant  of  the  order.  It  is  a  funereal-looking  bird,  the  largest 
specimens  inhabiting  New  Guinea.  One  of  its  most  striking  features  is  the  beak,  which  is 
of  enormous  size.  Its  tongue  differs  from  that  of  other  parrots  in  that  it  is  slender  and 
-cylindrical  in  shape,  and  of  a  deep  red  colour,  instead  of  thick,  fleshy,  and  black.  It  frequents, 
Mr.  Wallace  tells  us,  the  lower  parts  of  the  forest,  feeding  upon  various  fruits  and  seeds,  but 
displaying  a  marked  partiality  for  the  kernel  of  the  canary-nut,  which  grows  on  a  lofty 
forest-tree;  "and  the  manner  in  which  it  gets  at  these  seeds,"  writes  Mr.  Wallace,  "  shows  a 
correlation  of  structure  and  habits  which  would  point  to  the  canary  as  its  special  food.  The 
shell  of  this  nut  is  so  excessively  hard  that  only  a  heavy  hammer  will  crack  it;  it  is  some- 
what triangular,  and  the  outside  is  quite  smooth.  The  manner  in  which  the  bird  opens  these 
nuts  is  very  curious.  Taking  one  end-ways  in  its  bill,  and  keeping  it  firm  by  a  pressure  of 
the  tongue,  it  cuts  a  transverse  notch  by  a  lateral  sawing  motion  of  the  sharp-edged  lower 
mandible.  This  done,  it  takes  hold  of  the  nut  with  its  foot,  and,  biting  off  a  piece  of  leaf, 
retains  it  in  the  deep  notch  by  the  upper  mandible,  and  again  seizing  the  nut,  which  is 
prevented  from  slipping  by  the  elastic  tissue  of  the  leaf,  fixes  the  edge  of  the  lower  mandible 
in  the  notch,  and  a  powerful  rip  breaks  off  a  piece  of  the  shell.  Again  taking  the  nut  in  its 
claws,  it  inserts  the  very  long  and  sharp  point  of  the  bill,  and  picks  out  the  kernel,  which  is 
seized  hold  of,  morsel  by  morsel,  by  the  extensile  tongue." 

Of  the  typical  parrots,  the  best  known  is  the  common  GREY  AFRICAN  PARROT,  with  a  red 
tail,  so  valued  on  account  of  its  great  talking  powers.  Other  species  of  this  section  which 
should  be  mentioned  here  are  the  PYGMY  PARROTS,  MACAWS,  HAWK-BILLED  PARROT,  BUDGERI- 
GARS, and  OWL-PARROT. 

The  first  named  are  the  smallest  of  all  the  tribe,  remarkable  as  well  for  the  splendour  of 
the  plumage  as  their  size,  which  is  less  than  that  of  the  common  sparrow. 

The  LONG-TAILED  MACAWS,  representing  the  most  showy  and  gaudily  coloured  of  all  the 
Parrot  Tribe,  inhabit  the  tropical  forests  of  South  America.  Mr.  Bates  describes  a  flock  of 
scarlet-and-blue  macaws,  which  he  came  across  one  day,  as  looking  like  a  cluster  of  flaunting 
banners  among  the  crown  of  dark  green  leaves  of  a  bacaba-palm. 

The  superb  HYACINTHINE  MACAW  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  the  Parrot  Tribe,  and  was  found 


94         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


' 


P*.f.  *,  If.  Sfvllli-K"il.  F.Z.S. 

BLACK    COCKATOO 

Found  in  pairt  in  tkick  fortits 

The  HANGING-PARROTS  are  about  the 
same  size  as  the  well-known  "  love-birds," 
and  remarkable  for  their  habit  of  sleeping 
suspended  head-downwards  by  one  foot  from 
the  boughs  of  trees.  They  are  all  brilliantly 
coloured  birds,  and  have  a  fairly  wide  range, 
extending  from  India  and  the  Philippines 
through  the  Malay  region  as  far  east  as  Duke 
of  York  Island. 

The  Australian  BUDGERIGARS,  or  GRASS- 
PARRAKI  I  is,  need  no  description  here;  but 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  nearly  allied  to 
them  is  a  small  species  known  as  the  SXVAMT- 

OrLoNG-TAIl.l.l'GlO'l  MH'AKKAk!  I   '•     AsitS 


by  Bates  in  the  interior  of  Brazil.  As  its 
name  implies,  it  is  of  a  deep  hyacinthine 
colour,  relieved  by  a  bare  patch  of  pure 
white  skin  round  the  eyes.  It  feeds  on  the 
nuts  of  several  palms,  especially  those  of 
the  macuja.  These  nuts,  which  are  so  haul 
as  to  be  difficult  to  break  without  a  heavy 
hammer,  are  crushed  to  a  pulp  by  the  power- 
ful beak  of  this  macaw. 

Crests  among  parrots  are  common  enough, 
but  only  one  species  wears  a  frill;  tin 
the  HAWK-BILLED  PARROT  of  the  Amn/«n 
Valley.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  large 
and  well-known  AMA/DN  PARK'  us,  and  has 
been  aptly  described  as  a  most  extraordinary 
bird.  Its  coloration  is  striking — green  above, 
with  a  brown  head;  the  frill  or  ruff  around 
the  neck  shows  up  in  strong  contrast,  being 
dark  red,  with  blue  edges,  and  barred  with 
blue.  The  feathers  of  the  breast  and  abdo- 
men, like  the  frill,  are  also  red  and  blue, 
whilst  the  under-surfaces  of  the  tail  and 
wings  are  black.  It  is  only  when  the  bird  is 
excited  or  angry  that  the  ruff  is  raised. 


Hull  fy  SiMllltl  tnill.  Ci.] 

COCKATOO 
Cotkatooi  in  a  viild  nan  often  ccngrefait  in  immetiu 


'i  Grrr* 


PARROTS,    CUCKOOS,    AND    PLANTAIN-EATERS        95 


Phote  by  Otlomar  jfnjchutx] 


LEADBEATER'S    COCKATOO 

Has  a  red  crest,  banded  ivith  yelloiv  and  tipped  ivith  'white 


[Berlin 


name  implies,  it  is  a  ground-dwelling  species,  and,  in  accordance  with  this  habit,  has  considerably 
longer  legs  than  the  tree-haunting  species.  This  lengthening  of  the  leg  in  arboreal  species 
is  seen  also  among  pigeons  and  many  other  birds. 

The  most  interesting,  perhaps,  of  all  the  parrots  is  the  remarkable  K.VKAPO,  or  O\VL-PARROT, 
of  New  Zealand.  Like  the  species  just  described,  it  is  also  a  ground-dweller;  furthermore, 
it  differs  from  all  other  members  of  the  tribe  in  being  flightless,  and,  like  the  flightless 
members  of  the  Ostrich  Tribe,  has  completely  lost  the  deep  keel  from  the  breast-bone, 
which  gives  support  to  the  muscles  which  move  the  wings.  It  is  a  large  bird,  green  in 
colour,  mottled  with  yellow  and  black,  and  derives  its  name  of  Owl-parrot  from  the  fact  that 
the  feathers  of  the  face  radiate  from  the  eye  outwards  to  form  a  kind  of  disk.  When 
eating  grass,  it  is  said  to  graze,  nibbling  after  the  fashion  of  a  rabbit.  Occasionally  it  is 
said  to  climb  trees,  descending  with  extended  wings,  so  as  to  break  the  force  of  its  career. 
It  has  been  described  as  a  playful  and  affectionate  pet  in  captivity,  displaying  also  great 
cleverness  and  intelligence.  Unfortunately  it  is  growing  more  and  more  rare,  so  that  its  final 
extermination  is  only  a  question  of  time — the  ravages  of  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs,  introduced  by 
the  settlers,  being  mainly  the  agents  of  destruction. 

Once  common  all  over  New  Zealand,  the  range  of  the  owl-parrot  is  now  restricted  to  the 
mountainous  regions  of  North  Island  and  the  northern  half  of  South  Island.  During  the  day 
it  remains  concealed  in  the  holes  in  rocks  or  under  roots  of  trees,  and  if  disturbed  is  difficult 
to  rouse.  When  taken  from  its  retreat,  it  runs  swiftly,  and  tries  to  hide,  seeking  shelter, 
if  possible,  under  a  heap  of  soft,  dry  grass.  At  sunset,  however,  it  becomes  very  animated, 
and  travels  —  at  least  when  possible  —  in  companies,  making  tracks  a  foot  or  more  wide  across 
the  herbage.  It  feeds  greedily  upon  mosses,  ferns,  seeds,  berries,  and,  it  is  said,  even  lizards, 
giving  vent,  when  devouring  some  favourite  morsel,  to  a  kind  of  grunting  noise. 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  kakapo  nests  in  holes  under 
trees  and  rocks,  laying  two  or  three 
eggs,  which,  like  those  of  the  Parrots, 
are  white. 

The  natives  take  advantage  of 
its  feeble  powers  of  flight,  hunting  it 
on  foot  by  torchlight,  aided  by  dogs, 
which,  it  is  said,  are  not  seldom 
seriously  wounded  by  the  powerful 
bill. 

When  the  breeding-season  is 
over,  these  birds  appear  to  live  in 
small  communities,  four  or  five 
occupying  the  same  hole.  They  are 
apparently  gifted  with  some  fore- 
sight, inasmuch  as  they  lay  up  a  store 
of  food,  to  be  drawn  upon  during  bad 
weather. 

CUCKOOS  AND  PLANTAIN-KATKKS 

The  Cuckoo  Tribe  is  somewhat 
unfortunate  in  that  the  numerous 
members  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  completely  overshadowed  by  the 
prominence  which  has  been  given 
to  the  COMMON  CUCKi  "  >.  Few  birds, 
indeed,  have  managed  to  secure  so 
much  attention,  the  poet  in  particular 
having  sung  its  praises  without  stint. 
This  enthusiasm  undoubtedly  is  but 
an  echo  of  the  general  popular  senti- 
ment, for  there  are  few  birds  to 
which  the  British  extend  a  more 
hearty  welcome,  its  well-known  cry 
possessing  a  peculiar  charm  for  lovers 
of  the  country.  Coming  in  April,  and  leaving  again  in  July,  its  stay  is  of  the 
shortest;  but  during  the  greater  part  of  this  time  its  whereabouts  may  generally  be  known 
by  the  familiar  call  "  cuckoo,  cuckoo,"  though  undergoing  certain  characteristic  changes  as  the 
months  glide  by. 

Apart  from  its  song,  one  of  the  most  interesting  things  concerning  the  cuckoo  is  the  fact 
that  it  goes  about  in  disguise  —  the  disguise  of  the  ass  in  the  lion's  skin  with  a  vengeance; 
for  it  is  clothed  in  the  garb  of  that  terror  of  the  countryside,  the  sparrow-hawk.  Nay,  more; 
it  has  also  most  successfully  imitated  the  flight  of  that  bogy;  and  this  to  frighten  little 
birds — not,  however,  for  the  mere  purpose  of  creating  consternation  amongst  them,  but  for  far 
more  sinister  ends. 

Somehow  or  another,  in  cuckoo  society,  the  rearing  of  a  family  is  a  responsibility  which 
is  utterly  repudiated.  Great  pains  seem  to  have  been  taken  to  evade  this  duty,  and  yet  to 
ensure  the  continuity  of  their  distinguished  house.  The  oviparous  method  of  reproduction, 
which  obtains  in  the  feathered  world,  has  been  turned  to  good  account  —  in  fact,  everything 
depends  upon  this.  It  seems  to  have  suggested  itself  as  far  more  convenient  to  drop  an  egg 
here  and  there  into  a  neighbour's  nursery,  and  leave  the  work  of  bringing  it  to  life  to 
the  owners  thereof.  But  to  carry  out  this  system  <>f  distributing  foundlings  requires  tact, 


C.  ««(</]  \_Wiihaw,  K.B. 

MACAW 

the  flight  of  these  gcrgeouily  clad  birdt  it  very  powerful 


Phtla  tj  Kirrj  6f  C».J 


BLUE    MOUNTAIN-PARROTS 

ji  honey-eating  ipcciei 

97 


98       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fhttt  by  J.  fiat  M 


YOUNG   CUCKOO    EJECTING    EGG 

The  egg  it  held  in  petition  by  the  head  and  li'ings 


(B.iik 


cunning,  and  the  mutual  co-operation  of  both  the  male  and  his — at  least  temporary — wife ; 
hence  the  disguise.  The  plan  of  execution  very  frequently  adopted  is  for  the  male  to  hover 
over  the  treasure-house  of  the  intended  foster-parents  hawk-wise.  This  is  sure  to  call  forth  an 
attack  from  the  poor  little  wretches  threatened,  which  ends  in  an  apparently  hasty  retreat  of 
the  marauder,  followed  by  his  fearless  assailants.  No  sooner  is  the  coast  clear,  however,  than 
the  wily  female,  taking  her  egg  in  her  beak,  slips  quietly  up  to  the  nest  and  deposits  her  burden. 

Let  us  imagine  that  this  home  so  lately  threatened  is  that  of  the  modest  little  hedge- 
sparrow,  and  take  a  peep  during  the  absence  of  the  owners,  after  quiet  has  established  itself 
once  again.  Lying  side  by  side  with  the  tiny  sky-blue  eggs  of  the  hedge-sparrow  we  should 
find  the  relatively  large,  greyish-green  or  reddish-grey  egg  of  the  cuckoo.  What  a  contrast! 
If  the  hedge-sparrows  notice  this  too,  they  evidently  do  not  mind,  tor  they  invariably  hatch  it 
with  their  own. 

Hut  some  birds  are  not  so  accommodating  as  this,  and  would  ruthlessly  destroy  or  reject 
any  egg  surreptitiously  introduced  into  the  nest.  Consequently  more  deception  has  to  be 
practised.  The  hawk-like  garb  still  serves  its  purpose  to  draw  off  the  intended  dupes  from 
the  nest;  but  this  is  not  enough,  for  to  deposit  an  egg  of  the  normal  cuckoo  type  would  be 
worse  than  useless,  since  it  would  meet  with  instant  destruction  on  the  return  of  the  owners 
of  the  nest.  But  the  cuckoo,  strange  to  say,  has  proved  equal  to  the  occasion,  and  meets 
the  difficulty  by  laying  an  egg  to  match  those  in  the  nest.  The  Redstart.  Wagtail,  Sedge- 
warbler,  Red-backed  Shrike,  and  Meadow-pipit  may  he  cited  as  instances  of  shall  we  say 
exclusive? — birds  which  must  be  circumvented  by  "  colourable  imitations."  IVrhaps  the  most 
wonderful  of  the  cuckoo  successes  in  this  direction  is  the  imitation  of  the  redstart's  < 
which  is  blue. 

Naturally  these  facts  have  given  rise  to  much  speculation,  but  even  now  we  cannot  regard 
the  discussion  as  finally  settled.  Some  ornithologists  held  th.it  the  egg  of  every  individual 
cuckoo  was  subject  to  great  variations,  and  that  the  place  of  deposit  of  each  egg  was  determined 


PARROTS,    CUCKOOS,   AND    PLANTAIN-EATERS        99 

only  after  the  bird  had  ascertained  its  colour.  If  this  were  true,  surely  we  should  find  blue 
cuckoos'  eggs  in  hedge-sparrows'  as  well  as  redstarts'  nests.  But  we  don't !  Others  have  sought 
to  explain  the  existence  of  mimicking  eggs  to  the  influence  of  the  food  peculiar  to  the  foster- 
parent  upon  the  germ  of  the  young  female  cuckoo,  which,  through  this  channel,  became 
transmitted  to  all  its  descendants.  To  support  this  hypothesis  it  was  necessary  to  throw  over- 
board the  old  individual  variability  explanation,  and  to  adopt  one  that  is  certainly  nearer  the 
truth  —  to  wit,  that  each  cuckoo  chooses  the  nest  of  that  species  in  which  itself  was  reared 
as  a  depository,  in  turn,  for  its  own  egg,  and  only  when  such  is  not  available  will  it  select 
some  other  species,  and  trust  to  luck  for  its  adoption.  This  would  certainly  account  for  many 
anomalies ;  but  as  it  seems  that  there  are  more  eggs  unlike  than  like  those  of  the  selected 
foster-parents,  it  cannot  be  a  perfect  explanation. 

A  third  explanation  takes  that  part  of  the  second  for  granted  which  assumes  that  cuckoos 
select  nests  of  the  species  which  served  them  as  foster-parents,  and  explains  the  mimicry, 
when  this  occurs,  as  due  to  the  results  of  natural  selection. 

Our  interest,  however,  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  common  cuckoo  is  not  to  be 
allowed  to  drop  with  the  incubation  of  the  egg.  The  perfidy  of  the  parents  seems  to  have 
cast  a  sombre  shadow  over  the  cradle  of  the  offspring,  an  evil  spell  destined  to  bear  fruit  with 
terrible  suddenness;  for  the  young,  before  it  is  many  hours  old,  and  while  yet  blind  and 
naked,  perpetrates  its  first  act  of  wrong-doing  by  committing  murder !  There  is  no  case  here 
of  wilful  or  ignorant  misrepresentation  and  slander,  such  as  many  of  our  feathered  friends  are 
made  to  suffer  at  our  hands — no  foolish  prejudice  such  as  has  blasted  the  reputation  of  some 
of  our  most  guiltless  and  useful  of  bird-citizens.  The  witnesses  of  the  crime  of  which  we  speak 
are  many  and  unimpeachable.  The  facts  are  as  follows :  — 

The  parent  cuckoo  deposits  her  egg  in  the  nest  of  some  other  bird  with  those  of  the 
owners  thereof.  All  are  hatched.  In  a  few  hours  after  the  arrival  of  the  young  cuckoo  the 
foster-brothers  and  -sisters  invariably  disappear,  and  are  not  seldom  found  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  nest.  That  they  must  have  been  removed  by  force  is  certain;  but 
this  force  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  natural  parents.  The  evidence  of  the  first  witnesses, 
therefore,  was  worthy  of  all  consideration ;  and  since  their  accounts  have  been  frequently 


fhtto  t>j  Billingten] 


[Quttnsland 


PHEASANT-CUCKOO 

The  hind  toe  terminates  in  a  spur-like  cla-w  ;   hence  these  cuckoos  are  knoitin  as  Lark-heeled  Cuckoos 


100      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF   THE    WORLD 


confirmed  by  most  trustworthy  observers,  we  must  now  admit  the  charge  proved.  One  of 
the  best  known  of  these  accounts  is  that  of  Mrs.  Hugh  Blackburn.  She  has  given  us  a  vivid 
picture  of  this  most  extraordinary  of  domestic  tragedies.  The  victims  in  this  instance  were 
meadow-pipits.  Finding  a  pipit's  nest  with  a  cuckoo's  egg  therein,  she  kept  it  carefully 
under  observation.  At  one  visit  she  found  the  pipits  hatched,  but  not  the  cuckoo.  Forty- 
eight  hours  later  the  cuckoo  had  not  only  arrived,  but  ousted  his  foster-brothers  and  -sisters, 
who  were  found  lying  outside  the  nest,  but  yet  alive.  They  were  replaced  beside  the  cuckoo! 
which  at  once  reopened  hostilities  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  its  absolute  possession  of 
the  nursery.  This  it  did  by  burrowing  under  one  of  them,  which,  balanced  upon  its  back, 
it  proceeded  to  eject  by  climbing  up  the  nest  tail-foremost,  till,  reaching  the  brim,  it  could 
relieve  itself  of  its  burden  by  heaving  it  over  the  edge  and  down  the  bank.  Pausing  a 
moment,  it  then  felt  backwards  with  its  wings  to  make  sure  the  pipit  was  really  gone,  and, 
having  satisfied  itself  on  this  point,  subsided  to  the  bottom  of  the  nest.  Next  day,  when 
the  nest  was  visited,  the  remaining  pipit  was  found  outside  the  nest  cold  and  dead.  "  Hut 
what  struck  me  most,"  she  writes,  "  was  this :  the  cuckoo  was  perfectly  naked,  without  a 
vestige  of  a  feather  or  even  a  hint  of  feathers,  its  eyes  were  not  yet  opened,  and  its  neck 
seemed  too  weak  to  support  the  weight  of  its  head.  The  pipits  had  well-developed  quills  on 
the  wings  and  back,  and  had  bright  eyes  partially  opened,  yet  they  seemed  quite  helpless 
under  the  manipulations  of  the  cuckoo,  which  looked  a  much  less  developed  creature." 

The  GREAT  SPOTTED  CUCKOO  of  South  Europe  and  North  Africa  is  a  species  which,  though 
parasitic,  does  not  seem  to  have  sunk  to  such  a  depth  as  the  common  cuckoo.     Its  eggs 

very  closely  resemble  those  of  certain 
magpies  and  crows  within  its  breeding- 
area,  and  it  is  in  the  nests  of  these  that 
they  are  deposited.  We  may  assume 
that  mimicry  has  been  resorted  to,  and 
become  perfected  by  the  same  means  as 
have  accomplished  this  end  in  the  case 
of  the  common  cuckoo.  We  notice  here, 
however,  two  points  of  difference  there- 
from. In  the  first  place,  from  two  to 
four  eggs  are  left  in  each  nest  instead 
of  one  ;  and,  secondly,  the  young  cuckoos 
seem  to  live  in  perfect  amity  with  their 
foster-brothers  and  -sisters  —  there  is  no 
ejection  of  the  rightful  heirs. 

Having  pledged  themselves  to  a 
course  of  deception  and  treachery,  there 
is  no  telling  the  lengths  to  which  such 
conduct  may  lead.  We  have  already 
seen  that  the  bird  has  succeeded  in  lav- 
ing what  we  may  call  forged  eggs,  but 
we  come  now  to  an  instance  where  the 
young  has  also  to  be  disguised.  This 
is  furnished  by  a  species  of  cuckoo 
known  as  tin-  K<  >I  I .,  inhabiting  Palawan, 
an  island  in  the  Philippines.  This  bird 
shifts  its  parental  duties  upon  th<- 
shoulders  of  a  species  of  myna  inhabit 
ing  the  same  island.  Now,  the  mynas 
are  black,  and  their  young,  as  is  often 
the  case  where  both  sexes  arc  coloured 


I  «.,!*.,„„„< 

CUCKOO    ONE    DAY   OLD    IN    HEDGE-SPARROWS 
NEST 

Tkt  jouKf  bird  kat  ill  mwk  ,fen,  rtaJy  for  all  tkt  fecj  tkt  fwtr 
can  tollttt 


PARROTS,    CUCKOOS,    AND    PLANTAIN-EATERS      IOI 


alike,  resemble  the  parents,  and  are  black 
likewise.  With  the  cuckoo  the  case  is 
different.  The  male  and  female  are 
conspicuously  different  in  coloration,  the 
former  being  black,  the  latter  brown.  In 
such  cases  it  is  the  rule  for  the  young 
to  wear  the  livery  of  the  female.  If  this 
rule  were  adhered  to  in  the  case  of  the 
cuckoo,  destruction  would  be  more  than 
probable,  for  the  mynas  would  as  likely 
as  not  destroy  so  outrageous  a  departure 
from  myna  custom  as  a  brown  youngster. 
But  the  koel  has  proved  equal  to  the  occa- 
sion, by  the  simple  expedient  of  attiring 
the  young  in  the  male  instead  of  the 
female  livery.  Later  on  in  life  the  rule 
for  the  exchange  of  plumage  is  reversed, 
and  the  young  female  doffs  the  temporary 
black  dress  of  the  male  for  the  brown 
one  of  the  adult  female,  instead  of  vice 
versd. 

All  cuckoos,  however,  are  not  para- 
sitic, the  species  known  as  LARK-HEELED 
CUCKOOS — from  the  presence  of  a  long, 
spine-like  claw  on  the  hind  toe  —  building 
a  nest  and  hatching  their  own  eggs. 
They  have  a  wide  range,  being  found  in 
Africa  from  Egypt  to  Cape  Colony,  Mada- 
gascar, India,  China,  New  Guinea,  and 
Australia. 

As  a  rule,  the  Cuckoos  are  not 
conspicuously  coloured,  but  some  species 
are  clad  in  a  livery  resplendent  with 
metallic  colours.  These  are  represented  by  the  Indian  and  Australian  BRONZE  CUCKOOS  and 
the  African  GOLDEN  CUCKOOS.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  is  the  African  EMERALD 
CUCKOO,  in  which  the  upper-parts  are  of  a  vivid  emerald-green,  whilst  the  under-parts  are 
bright  yellow. 

Finally,  we  must  mention  the  GROUND-CUCKOOS,  which  are  comparatively  long-legged, 
terrestrial  forms,  with  small  wings.  One  of  the  best  known  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Southern 
United  States,  from  Texas  to  New  Mexico,  Southern  Colorado,  and  California.  "  It  has  obtained 
the  name  of  ROOD-RUNNER,"  writes  Dr.  Sharpe,  "  from  the  speed  with  which  it  flies  over  the 
ground,  some  idea  of  which  may  be  gained  from  a  statement  of  Colonel  Stevenson,  that,  when 
in  Southern  California,  he  saw,  on  two  occasions,  the  ranchmen  of  that  part  of  the  country 
chase  one  of  these  birds  on  horseback  for  a  distance  of  a  mile  or  more  at  full  speed,  when 
the  cuckoo,  though  still  in  advance,  would  suddenly  stop  and  fly  up  among  the  upper  limbs 
of  some  stunted  tree  or  bush  near  the  roadside,  and  the  rider,  having  kept  the  bird  in  view 
all  the  way,  would  dismount  and  easily  take  the  exhausted  bird  from  its  perch  alive." 

That  the  African  PLANTAIN-EATERS,  or  TOURACOS,  are  related  to  the  Cuckoos  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  although  they  do  not  bear  any  very  close  superficial  resemblance  to  them.  Striking 
in  appearance  and  of  beautiful  plumage,  they  owe  as  much  of  the  interest  which  now  centres 
on  them  to  the  chemist  as  to  the  ornithologist.  Long  ago  it  was  noticed  that  the  rich 
irimson  colour  of  the  wing-quills  disappeared  after  exposure  to  a  heavy  rain,  having  beer 


Photo  by  J.  T.  Nfwman] 

YOUNG    CUCKOO 

A  young  cuckoo  remains  in  the  nest  till  fully  jltdged 


[Berxhamited 


102       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


apparently  washed  out — asupposition  justified 
by  the  discovery  still  later  that  the  water  in 
which  captive  species  had  been  bathing  was 
strongly  tinged  with  colour.  A  little  more 
than  thirty  years  ago  these  facts  came  under 

^,«  ™-,  •_  _^-     ^^  the    notice   of  Professor    Church,  who, 

^|^^W\        4  ^^^^^^^™          ^      result   of    a   thorough    examination    of    the 

^^^^ A  ^&^^^0^^        **V        mystery,   was    enabled  to  announce  the  dis- 

^^v     mV        ^.^(  ^1     covery  of  a  new  animal  pigment  containing 

.  ~^*  copper,  which  he  called  "  turacin." 

There  are  twenty-five  different  species  of 
plantain-eaters,  which  are  divided  into  two 
groups  —  those  which  have  red  in  the  quills 
and  those  without.  All  are  forest-dwellers, 
feeding  upon  various  wild  fruits,  building  a 
nest  of  sticks  resembling  that  of  a  pigeon, 
and  laying  therein  three  white  eggs.  The 
majority  of  the  species  are  crested  and 
brilliantly  coloured,  but  a  few  are  quite 
soberly  clad.  The  largest  of  the  tribe  is 
nearly  3  feet  long,  and  a  brief  description  of 
its  coloration  will  serve  to  convex-  a  notion 
of  the  beauty  of  the  more  gorgeously  clad 
members.  In  this  species,  then,  the  upper 
surface  of  the  body  is  blue,  the  tail  yellow, 
with  a  blue  base  and  black  bar  across  the 
tip,  the  under  surface  of  the  body  rufous 
brown,  the  bill  yellow,  with  a  scarlet  tip,  and 
the  eye  red. 

Though  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees 
seem  to  be  their  favourite  resort,  these  birds  are 
found  also  among  the  dense  tangled  masses 
of  creepers  near  the  ground,  tlitting,  when 
disturbed,  in  graceful  curves,  and  alighting 
with  crest  erected  and  the  tail  turned  sharply 
upwards.  The  powers  of  flight  appear  to  vary 

among  the  different  species,  some  being  described  as  decidedly  clumsy  on  the  wing,  whilst  others, 
on  the  contrary,  are  light  and  graceful.  Shy  and  very  restless,  they  are  very  difficult  to 
procure,  when  wounded  running  with  great  speed,  and  taking  shelter  in  holes  in  trees.  Their 
flesh  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  by  the  natives.  Save  during  rain  or  the  heat  of  midday, 
they  appear  to  be  very  noisy  birds,  having  a  harsh  note,  varied  with  cat-like  mowings. 


Phttt  fy  J.  T.  fftwmar. 

YOUNG   CUCKOO   IN   REED-WARBLER'S  NEST 

TUi  pkotografk  was  taken  in  August,  an  unusually  Ian  dale  to  find 

tkese  birds  in  ike  nest 


CHAPTER    XII 

ROLLERS,    KINGFISHERS,    HOR.\'B/U.S,    J.\'D    HOOPOES 

CROW-LIKE  birds  of  brilliant  coloration,  the  ROLLERS  have  earmd  their  name  from  the 
habit  of  occasionally  rolling    or    turning  over    in    their  flight,  after    the  manner  of 
tumbler-pigeons.     One  species  at  least  visits  Britain  occasionally,  only  to  he  -,h,,t  down 
at  once  by  the  insatiable   pot-hunter  and  collector  of  rare  birds.      They  are    birds    of  wide 
distribution,  occurring   over   the    greater   part   of  the   Old    World,  and,  as    we    have  already 
remarked,  of  brilliant  coloration,  blue  and  green,  varied  with  reddish,  being  the  predominating 
colours.      As   with    all    birds  of  beautiful    plumage,  they  are  subjected  to  much  persecution, 


P*.<o  tj  W.  Savilli-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 

AUSTRALIAN    LAUGHING-KINGFISHER 

The  Laughing-kingfisher,  cr  Laughing-jackass,  derives  its  name  from  its  extraordinary  note,  resembling  a  demoniacal  laugh 

I03 


104        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


thousands  upon  thousands  being  killed  every 
year  in  India  alone,  to  supply  the  demands 
made  by  milliners  for  the  decoration  of 
ladies'  hats. 

Rollers  frequent  forest  country,  and 
travel  in  pairs  or  in  small  companies :  some 
species  are  entirely  insectivorous ;  other-  eat 
also  reptiles,  frogs,  beetles,  worms,  and  gr;iin. 
Four  or  five  white  eggs  are  laid  in  a  not 
made  of  roots,  grass,  hair,  and  feathers,  .mil 
built  in  walls,  under  the  eaves  of  buildings, 
or  in  holes  of  trees  or  banks. 

Equally  beautiful  as  a  whole,  anil  far 
more  widely  known,  are  the  KIM;I  ism  us. 
But  just  as  the  common  cuckoo  has  come  to 
overshadow  the  rest  of  its  tribe,  so  the  ('<  >M- 
MON  KINGKISHKR  eclipses  all  its  congeners. 
For  centuries  a  wealth  of  fable,  held  together 
by  a  modicum  of  fact,  served  to  secure  fur 
this  bird  a  peculiar  interest;  whilst  to-day, 
though  shorn  of  much  of  the  importance 
with  which  these  fables  had  invested  it, 
this  kingfisher  is  still  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  beautiful  of  its  tribe. 

Green  and  blue  are  the  predominating 
colours  of  its  upper-  and  bright  chestnut- 
red  of  its  under-surface ;  but  owing  to 
structural  peculiarities  of  the  feathers  of  the 
upper-parts,  the  reflection  of  the  green  and 
blue  areas  changes  with  the  direction  of  the 
light  from  which  the  bird  is  viewed,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  peacock's  train-feathers 
change  according  as  the  light  falls  upon  them. 

As  is  the  rule  where  both  sexes  are  brilliantly  coloured,  this  bird  breeds  in  a  hole,  which 
in  the  present  species  is  generally  excavated  in  the  bank  of  a  stream,  but  sometimes  in  an  old 
gravel-pit  or  chalk-pit,  a  mile  or  even  more  from  the  water.  Occasionally  the  crumbling 
under  the  roots  of  an  old  tree  affords  sufficient  shelter.  No  nest  is  made,  although  what  is 
equivalent  to  a  nest  is  ultimately  formed  from  the  bird's  habit  of  ejecting  the  indigestible 
parts  of  its  food  on  to  the  floor  of  the  space  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  In  course  of  time  this 
becomes  a  cup-shaped  structure;  but  whether,  as  Professor  Newton  remarks,  by  the  pleasure  of 
the  bird  or  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  or  both,  is  unknown.  With  care  the  nest  may  be 
removed  entire,  but  the  slightest  jar  reduces  the  whole  to  the  collection  of  fish-hones  and 
crustacean  skeletons  of  which  it  was  originally  composed.  There  is  a  tradition,  not  yet 
extinct,  to  the  effect  that  these  "nests"  are  of  great  pecuniary  value,  and  scarcely  a  year 
passes  without  the  authorities  at  the  Hn'.ish  Museum  being  offered  such  a  treasure,  .it 
prices  varying  from  a  few  pounds  to  a  hundred.  The  nest-chamber  is  approached  by  a  tunnel 
sloping  upwards,  and  varying  from  8  inches  to  3  feet  in  length,  terminating  in  a  chamber 
some  6  inches  in  diameter,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  These,  from  six  to  eight  in  number, 
have  a  pure  white,  shining  shell,  tinged  with  a  most  exquisite  pink  colour,  which  is  lost  when 
the  eggs  are  blown. 

The  young  seem  to  be  reared  under  very  unsanitary  conditions,  for  the  ejected  fish-bone.* 
and  other  hard  parts  are  not  reserved  entirely  for  the  nest,  but  gradually  distributed    along 


Hun  tr  W.  t,  Fiff"]  [!.</*/«  Suxxtrd 

KINGFISHERS    AT    HOME 

The  plurrage  of  thit  bird  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  iridescent 
hutt 


ROLLERS,    KINGFISHERS,    HORNBILLS,    AND    HOOPOES     105 


the  tunnel  approaching  it ;  later,  fish  brought  for  the  young,  but  dropped  on  the  way,  and 
the  fluid  excreta  of  the  parents  are  added,  forming  a  dripping,  fetid  mass  swarming  with 
maggots.  The  young,  on  leaving  the  nest,  are  at  first  tenderly  fed  and  cared  for  by  the 
parents,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  summer  seem  to  be  driven  away  to  seek  new  fishing- 
grounds  for  themselves. 

Of  the  many  legends  that  have  grown  up  around  this  bird,  some  are  well  worth  repeating. 
Specially  interesting  is  one  related  by  Professor  Newton  on  the  authority  of  the  French 
naturalist  Rolland.  This  has  it  that  the  kingfisher  was  originally  a  plain  grey  bird,  and 
acquired  its  present  bright  colours  by  flying  towards  the  sun  on  its  liberation  from  Noah's 
ark,  when  its  upper-surface  assumed  the  hue  of  the  sky  above  it,  and  its  lower  plumage  was 
scorched  by  the  heat  of  the  setting  sun  to  the  tint  it  now  bears.  Not  a  few  virtues  were 
also  attributed  to  this  bird.  Its  dried  body  would,  it  was  believed,  avert  thunder-bolts,  or, 
kept  in  a  wardrobe,  preserve  from  moths  the  woollen  stuffs  contained  therein,  whilst,  hung 
by  a  thread  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room,  it  would  serve  like  the  more  conventional  weather- 
cock to  point  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind. 

Persecuted  though  it  is,  the  kingfisher  is  by  no  means  a  rare  bird  in  England,  and 
those  who  will  may  generally  see  it  by  the  banks  of  some  slowly  flowing  stream  or  lake, 
or  even  shallow  brook,  sometimes  even  by  the  seashore.  It  feeds  upon  small  aquatic  insects 
and  Crustacea  and  small  fishes,  sometimes  even,  it  is  said,  upon  leeches.  Perched  on  some 
bough  overhanging  the  water,  or  stump  or  railing  on  the  bank,  it  watches  patiently,  silent 
and  motionless.  The  moment  its  prey  comes  within  striking  distance  it  plunges  down  upon  it, 
disappearing  for  a  moment  beneath  the  surface,  to  appear  the  next  with  its  capture  in  its 
beak.  If  this  be  a  fish,  it  is  held  crosswise,  and  borne  upwards  to  the  station  from  which 
the  plunge  was  made,  there  to  be  stunned  by  a  few  sharp  blows,  tossed  into  the  air, 
dexterously  caught,  and  swallowed  head-foremost.  At  times,  however,  perhaps  when  hunger 
presses,  more  activity  in  the  capture  of  food  is  displayed,  the  bird  hovering  suspended  over 
the  water,  after  the  custom  of  the  kestrel-hawk. 

Although  essentially  fish-eating  birds,  a  considerable  number  live  far  removed  from  water, 
obtaining  a  livelihood  by  the  capture  of  insects  in  forest  regions,  whilst  some  appear  to  feed 
mainly  on  reptiles.  These  are  known  as  Wood-kingfishers,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Water- 
kingfishers,  the  typical  member  of  which  group  has  been  just  described. 

Of  WOOD-KINGFISHERS, 

or  KlXGHUNTERS,  as  they  are  "^^t^siA. 

also  called,  the  most  beautiful 
are  the  RACKET-TAILED  KING- 
FISHERS, so  called  from  the 
fact  that  the  two  middle  tail- 
feathers  are  produced  into 
two  long  rods,  terminating  in 
a  spoon-shaped  enlargement. 
Although  represented  by  no 
less  than  twenty  distinct 
species,  they  have  a  somewhat 
limited  range,  being  found 
only  in  the  Moluccas,  New 
Guinea,  and  Northern  Aus- 
tralia. One  of  the  hand- 
somest of  all  is  the  one 
occurring  in  Amboina,  an 
island  in  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, where  it  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace.  The 


Fhtlt  t>j  Sthelasrit  Pheit.  Co.] 

LAUGHING-KINGFISHERS 

This  ipecits  has  comparatively  dull-coloured  plumage 


106        THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


bill,  he  tells  us,  is  coral-red,  the 
undcr-surface  pure  white,  the  back 
and  wings  deep  purple,  while  the 
shoulders,  head,  and  nape,  and  some 
spots  on  the  upper  part  of  the  back 
and  wings,  are  pure  azure-blue.  The 
tail  is  white,  narrowly  edged  with 
blue.  These  birds  live  upon  insects 
and  small  land-mollusca,  which  they 
dart  down  upon  and  pick  up  from  the 
ground  just  as  the  fish-eating  species 
pick  up  a  fish. 

Of  the    forest-haunting    spe< 
however,  the  best  known  is  probably 
the  large  and,  for  a  kingfisher,  dull- 
coloured   L.U<,HIN<;-I  \CK.\S~. ,  or 
SETTLER'S  CLOCK,  of  Australia.    Its 

food  is  of  a  very  mixed  character  — 
small  mammals,  reptiles,  insects,  and 
crabs  being  devoured  with  equal  relish. 
Since    it   is   not   seldom    to  be   set  n 
bearing  off  a  snake  in  its  bill,  it  may- 
be regarded  as  a  useful   bird  —  sup 
posing,  of  course,  the  snake  to  be  of 
a  poisonous  variety.    A  good  idea  of 
the  bird  in  its  native  haunts  is  given 
by  the  late  Mr.  Wheelwright.    "  About 

an  hour  before  sunrise,"  he  writes,  "  the  bushman  is  awakened  by  the  most  discordant  sound 
if  a  troop  of  fiends  were  shouting,  whooping,  and  laughing  around  him  in  one  wild  chorus. 
This  is  the  morning  song  of  the  '  laughing-jackass,'  warning  his  feathered  mates  that  daybreak 
is  at  hand.  At  noon  the  same  wild  laugh  is  heard,  and  as  the  sun  sinks  into  the  west  it 
again  rings  through  the  forest.  I  shall  never  forget  the  first  night  I  slept  in  the  open  bush  in 
this  country.  It  was  in  the  Hlack  Forest.  I  woke  about  daybreak  after  a  confused  sleep,  and 
for  some  minutes  I  could  not  remember  where  I  was,  such  were  the  extraordinary  sounds  that 
greeted  my  ears:  the  fiendish  laugh  of  the  jackass,  the  clear,  flute-like  notes  of  the  magpie, 
the  hoarse  cackle  of  the  wattle-birds  .  .  .  and  the  screaming  of  thousands  of  parrots  as  they 
dashed  through  the  forest,  all  giving  chorus,  formed  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  coin 
I  have  ever  heard,  and  seemed,  at  the  moment,  to  have  been  got  up  for  the  purpose  of 
welcoming  the  stranger  to  this  land  of  wonders  on  that  eventful  morning.  I  have  heard  it 
hundreds  of  times  since,  but  never  with  the  same  feelings  that  I  listened  to  it  then.  The 
laughing-jackass  is  the  bushman's  clock,  and  being  by  no  means  shy,  of  a  companionable 
nature,  and  a  constant  attendant  on  the  bush-tent  and  a  destroyer  of  snakes.  j>  regarded,  like 
the  robin  at  home,  as  a  sacred  bird  in  the  Australian  forests.  It  is  an  uncouth-looking  bird 
.  .  .  nearly  the  size  of  a  crow,  of  a  rich  chestnut-brown  and  dirty  white  colour,  the  wings 
slightly  chequered  with  light  blue,  after  the  manner  of  the  Hritish  jay.  The  tail-feathers  are 
long,  rather  pointed,  and  barred  with  brown.  ...  It  is  a  common  bird  in  all  the  forest 
throughout  the  year,  breeds  in  the  hole  of  a  tree,  and  the  eggs  are  white." 

Whilst  the  Kingfishers  are  remarkable  for  the  wondrous  beauty  of  their  coloration,  the 
HoRMUI.l.s,  their  allies,  attract  our  attention  rather  by  the  grotesqticness  of  their  shape,  due  to 
the  enormous  size  of  the  bill,  and  the  still  more  remarkable  horny  excrescences  which  surmount 
it  in  not  a  few  species,  forming  what  is  known  as  a  "casque."  Absent  in  some  of  the 
smaller  and  possibly  more  primitive  forms,  its  gradual  development  may  be  traced,  beginning 


Plitu  kj  C.  H.  Afat  r,,,n,)  [Smtr 

KINGFISHER 

Tkt  f  kotvg  raft  itcwi  the  nature  of the  favourite  haunts  of  ttii  ipettci 


Photo  by  C.  A.  M*t;  r,> vrin.  Sn 


HOOPOE     FLYING. 


This  photograph  displays  tin-  crest  fully  elevated,  and  likewise  shows  the  beautifully  banded    colouration 
of  the  under  surface  of  the  wing,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the  wings  in  flight. 


ROLLERS,    KINGFISHERS,    HORNBILLS,    AND    HOOPOES     1 07 

with  a  series  of  corrugations  along  the  ridge  of  the  base  of  the  bill,  gradually  increasing,  to 
form,  in  the  most  extreme  cases,  huge  superstructures  of  quaint  shapes,  and  apparently  of 
great  solidity.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  these  casques  are  practically  hollow,  save  in  the 
case  of  the  HELMET-HORNBILL  of  the  Malay  countries,  in  which  the  horny  sheath  is  backed  by 
solid  supports  of  bone,  whilst  the  front  of  the  sheath  itself  is  of  great  thickness  and  surprising 
density,  and  is  used  by  the  natives  for  carving  and  making  brooches  and  other  ornaments. 
The  use  of  this  powerful  hammer  —  for  such  it  may  possibly  be — is  unknown. 

Hornbills  are  forest-birds,  feeding  upon  fruit  and  insects,  the  latter  being  captured  on 
the  wing.  With  large  bill  and  wings,  a  long  tail,  and  a  relatively  small  body  and  short 
legs,  they  are  rather  unwieldy  birds,  and  yet,  for  many  reasons,  unusually  interesting.  '  Their 
nesting  habits  are  unique,  and  quite  worth  recounting  here  at  some  length.  Of  the  many 
accounts,  one  of  the  most  interesting,  as  well  as  one  of  the  latest,  is  that  of  Mr.  Charles  Hose, 
of  Borneo. 

"The  nest,"  he  writes,  "is  always  built  in  the  hollow  of  a  large  tree — the  hollow,  be  it 
noted,  being  always  due  to  disease  of  the  tree  or  the  ravages  of  termites,  not  to  the  personal 
labours  of  the  birds.  The  bottom  of  this  cavity  is  often  plugged  by  a  termites'  nest  and 
accumulation  of  decayed  wood,  and  on  the  upper  surface  of  this  is  made  the  nest,  a  very 
rough-and-ready  structure,  composed  simply  of  the  feathers  of  the  female.  The  hollow  of  the 
tree  communicates  with  the  exterior  air  by  means  of  a  long  aperture,  which,  just  before  the 
period  of  incubation,  is  closed  up  almost  entirely  by  the  male,  simply  leaving  a  long  slit  open, 
up  and  down  which  the  beak  of  the  enclosed  female  can  move.  The  substance  used  in  thus 
closing  the  aperture  closely  resembles  some  vegetable  resin,  and  is  probably  composed  of  a 
gastric  secretion,  combined  with  the  woody  fragments  of  fruit.  It  should  be  noticed  that  this 
slit  is  always  in  close  proximity  to  the  nest,  so  that  the  female  can  easily  protrude  her  beak 


LAUGHING-JACKASS 

FrtQuently  knoivn  as  the  Settler*  j 


[ffithmi,  N.B. 


io8     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


for  food  without  moving  from  her 
sitting  position.  During  incubation 
the  male  bird  supplies  the  female 
with  food  in  the  form  of  pellets  of 
fruit,  seeds,  insects,  portions  of  reptiles, 
etc.,  the  pellets  being  enclosed  each 
in  a  skin  of  rubber-like  consistency. 
While  feeding  the  female,  the  male 
clings  to  the  bark  of  the  tree,  or  sits 
on  a  branch  if  conveniently  near,  and 
jerks  these  pellets  into  the  gaping 
beak  of  the  hen,  two  to  four  pellets 
forming  a  meal.  During  mastication 
(for  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
the  hornbills  always  bolt  their  food 
entire)  some  fragments  of  the  pellets 
fall  to  the  ground,  and  seeds  which 
these  fragments  may  contain  take 
root,  germinate,  and  sprout,  and  the 
natives  can  judge  approximately  of 
the  date  of  incubation  by  the  age  of 
the  seedlings.  When  these  are  four- 
leaved,  the  eggs  have  been  hatched 
out  for  two  or  three  weeks.  At  this 
stage,  though  not  always  so  early, 
the  mother  bird  leaves  the  nest, 
breaking  down  the  gluey  substance 
with  her  beak  to  effect  an  exit; 
having  left  the  nest,  the  aperture 
through  which  she  left  is  carefully 
closed  up  again,  leaving  the  slit  as 
before,  and  now  both  male  and  female 

devote  their  energies  to  feeding  the  young  birds,  which  in  course  of  time  follow  the  example 
of  their  mother  and  leave  their  place  of  imprisonment.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  this 
gluing  up  first  of  the  mother  bird  and  her  eggs  and  afterwards  of  the  nestlings  alone  is  solely 
a  means  of  protection  against  predacious  carnivora.  .  .  . 

"The  nesting-season  is  during  May  and  June,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  birds,  if 
undisturbed,  return  to  the  same  nesting-place  every  year.  The  saplings  at  the  foot  of  the 
tree,  sprung  from  seeds  dropped  in  the  first  year  of  paring,  afford  signs  to  the  natives  of  the 
number  of  years  during  which  the  tree  has  been  occupied.  If  during  paring  or  incubation 
the  female  or  female  and  young  are  destroyed,  the  male  takes  to  himself  another  mate,  and 
repairs  to  the  same  nesting-place;  if,  however,  the  male  and  female  are  destroyed,  the  nest  is 
never  reoccupied  by  other  pairs.  An  interesting  incident  was  observed  while  on  Mount  Dulit. 
Espying  on  a  tree  the  external  signs  of  a  hornbill's  nest,  and  a  male  rhinoceros  perched  close 
by,  I  shot  the  male,  and  while  waiting  for  my  Dyak  collectors  to  make  a  ladder  up  the  tree 
to  secure  the  female,  I  observed  several  young  male  birds  fly  to  the  nest  and  assiduously  ply 
the  bereaved  widow  with  food,  a  fact  which  seems  to  indicate  a  competition  in  the  matrimonial 
market  of  the  bird-world  as  severe  as  that  among  human  beings.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to 
procure  embryos  or  nestlings  of  hornbills,  for  the  natives  are  inordinately  fond  of  both  as 
articles  of  diet,  and,  further,  are  always  anxious  to  secure  the  tail-feathers  of  the  adults  to 
adorn  their  war-coats  and  hats. 

"The    native   method   of   catching   the    female   during   incubation    is    ingenious,   though 


Hut,.  c..J 

CRESTED    HORNBILL 

The  Hornbillt  derive  their  name  from  the  great  ti-ze  of  the 


ROLLERS,    KINGFISHERS,    HORNBILLS,   AND    HOOPOES     109 


Ph,te  ty  W.  P.  Dandt,  f.Z.S.\  [Rigtnt'i  Part 

CONCAVE-CASQUED    HORNBILL,    INDIA 

The  noise  made  by  hornbills  on  the  iving  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  a  steam  engine 


decidedly  brutal.    The  tree  is  scaled, 

the    resin-like    substance   is   broken 

away,  and  the  frightened  bird  flies 

from  her  nest  up  the  hollow  trunk 

of  the   tree,    but    is    ignominiously 

brought  down  by  means  of  a  thorny 

stick  (the  thorns  point  downward), 

which    is    thrust    after    and    twisted 

about    until    a    firm    grip     in    her 

plumage   is  obtained.     The  Dyaks, 

never    very    faithful    observers    of 

nature,    believe    that   the  female   is 

shut  up  by  the  male,  so  that  after 

hatching    her    eggs    she    may    die, 

the  maggots  in  her  putrefying  body 

affording  food  for  the  young.     One 

very  curious  habit  of  the  rhinoceros- 

hornbill  which  I  have  not  hitherto 

seen    noted    is    the    rapid   jumping 

up  and  down  on  a  branch  with  both  feet  together.     This  jumping  motion   is   imitated   by  the 

Kyans  and  Dyaks  in  their  dances,  the  figure  being  known  to  the  Kyans  as  '  wan  blingong.' " 

That  the  HOOPOES,  unlike  as  they  may  be  in  general  appearance,  are  nevertheless 
intimately  related  to  the  Hornbills  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Graceful  in  contour  and  pleasing 
in  coloration,  it  is  a  pity  that  the  species  which  so  frequently  visits  Britain,  and  has  on 
more  than  one  occasion  nested  there,  should  be  so  ruthlessly  shot  down  immediately  its 
presence  is  discovered.  Save  the  wings  and  tail,  the  body  is  of  a  light  cinnamon  colour,  whilst 
the  head  is  surmounted  by  a  magnificent  crest  of  black-and-white-tipped  feathers,  which  can 
be  raised  or  depressed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  bird :  the  excepted  portions  of  the  plumage —  the 
wings  and  tail  —  are  buff,  varied  with  bands  of  black  and  white.  Thus  it  may  be  truthfully 
said  to  be  a  conspicuously  coloured  bird ;  yet  this  same  livery  seems  also  to  come  under  the 
head  of  protective  coloration,  for  we  are  assured  that,  when  danger  threatens,  the  bird  throws 
itself  flat  upon  the  ground,  spreads  out  its  wings,  and  at  once  becomes  transformed  into  what 
rather  resembles  a  heap  of  rags  than  a  bird.  Escape  by  flight,  however,  instead  of  subterfuge, 

seems  also  at  times  to  be  resorted  to, 
since,  when  pursued  by  a  falcon,  it  will 
mount  rapidly  to  a  great  height,  and 
not  seldom  effect  its  escape. 

The  domestic  habits  of  the  hoopoe 
are,  however,  by  no  means  so  charming 
as  one  would  expect  to  find  in  so  beauti- 
ful a  bird.  "  All  observers  agree,"  writes 
Professor  Newton,  "  in  stating  that  it 
delights  to  find  its  food  among  filth  of 
the  most  abominable  description,  and 
this  especially  in  its  winter  quarters. 
But  where  it  breeds,  its  nest — usually  in 
the  hole  of  a  tree  or  of  a  wall — is  not 
only  partly  composed  of  the  foulest 
materials,  but  its  condition  becomes 

Phttn  by  SctlsUttic  Phatt.  Co.]  [Parton't  Gntn 

GROUND-HORNBILL 

The  legs  of  the  ground-hornbill  are  much  longer  than  those  of  its  allies 

8 


worse  as  incubation  proceeds,  for  the 
hen  scarcely  ever  leaves  her  eggs,  being 
assiduously  fed  by  the  cock  as  she  sits 


no       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


(a  feature  strongly  recalling  the  custom  of  the 
Hornbills),  and  when  the  young  are  hatched 
their  faeces  are  not  removed  by  their  parent?,  as 
is  the  case  with  most  birds,  but  are  discharged 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  nest,  the 
unsanitary  condition  of  which  can  readily  be 
imagined.  Worms,  grubs,  and  insects  generally, 
form  the  hoopoes'  food,  and  upon  it  they  get 
so  fat  in  autumn  that  they  are  esteemed  a  deli- 
cate morsel  in  some  of  the  countries  of  Southern 
Europe,  and  especially  by  the  Christian  population 
of  Constantinople." 

Beside  the  EUROI  i  \\  I  looPOE,  which  also  ex- 
tends into  Northern  Africa,  four  other  species  are 
known,  three  of  which  are  African,  whilst  a  fourth 
ranges  from  India  to  Hainan. 

Nearly  related  to  the  birds  we  have  just 
described  are  the  WOOD-HOOPOES.  They  differ  from  their  allies  in  being  crestless,  having  a  more 
curved  bill,  and  a  plumage  of  metallic  purple,  with  a  white  patch  on  the  wings  and  white 
markings  on  the  tail.  Their  habits  resemble  those  of  their  more  highly  coloured  relatives. 


Phil*  ty  Sth»Uitt€ 


[Paritm  t  (jret* 


r..  C..] 

HOOPOE 

A  rtlarive  of  tkt  Hornbill  common  in  Europe 


CHAPTER    XIII 

BEE-EATERS,   MOTMOTS,    TODIES,    COLIES,   JND    TROGONS 

IN  the  present  chapter  we  deal  with  a  number  of  birds  of  singular  beauty  and  gracefulness. 
In  their  coloration  green  predominates,  thus  recalling  the  Rollers,  Parrots,  Plantain-eaters 
and  Kingfishers,  all  of  which  groups,  as  we  have  seen,  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
green  species. 

The  BEE-EATERS,  like  the  Kingfishers,  Hornbills.  and  Hoopoes,  have  a  foot  of  quite  peculiar 
structure,  the  middle  and  outer  toes  being  joined  together  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
their  length.  They  are  an  Old  World  group,  ranging  from  the  British  Islands  to  Australia, 
in  the  American  Continent  their  place  being  taken  by  the  Motmots  and  Jacamars,  of  which 
we  shall  speak  presently.  They  are  especially  plentiful  in  the  African  region,  somewhat  less 
so  in  the  Indian,  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Old  World  possessing  but  few  species. 

On  rare  occasions  one  species  visits  the  British  Islands.  This  is,  furthermore,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  group.  It  has  the  head,  neck,  upper  back,  and  a  broad  wing-bar  of 
a  ruddy-brown  colour;  the  lower  back  buff"  colour;  green  wings  and  tail,  with  black  tips  to 
the  middle  tail-feathers,  which  are  longer  than  the  rest.  The  forehead  is  pale  green  and  white; 
the  ear-coverts  are  black;  and  the  throat  bright  yellow,  divided  from  the  greenish-blue  under- 
parts  by  a  black  band.  "The  name  Bee-eater,"  writes  Mr.  Kvans  "is  well  deserved,  for  in 
Spain  [it]  is  a  perfect  pest  to  the  bee-keeper,  catching  the  workers  as  they  enter  and  leave 
the  hives."  Like  the  Kingfishers,  the  indigestible  parts  of  the  food  are  cast  up  and  deposited 
around  the  eggs,  though  bee-eaters  do  not  appear  to  form  a  nest  of  them,  as  with  the  Kingh'shei  s. 

From  four  to  six  eggs  of  a  beautiful  glossy  white  colour  are  deposited  in  holes  in  banks, 
or  —  and  this  is  worthy  of  special  notice — in  tunnels  bored  vertically  downwards  in  level  ground 
for  a  distance  of  from  3  to  10  feet.  How  this  is  done  is  a  mystery,  for  the  bird's  beak  and 
feet  look  by  no  means  equal  to  such  a  task.  No  ne>t  appears  to  be  made,  the  eggs  being 
deposited  at  the  extremity  of  the  burrow  without  further  preparation.  Two  species  of  the 
group,  however,  are  said  to  form  an  exception,  constructing  a  nest  of  straw  and  feathers 


BEE-EATERS,    MOTMOTS,    TODIES,    COLIES,    TROGONS     III 


These  two,  as  well  as  the 
members  of  the  genus  to  which 
the  British  bird  belongs,  ap- 
parently breed  in  colonies. 

Unfortunately  for  the  bee- 
eater,  its  flesh  is  palatable, 
whilst  its  plumage  is  in  great 
demand  for  millinery  purposes. 
Its  persecution  is  of  long  stand- 
ing, since  more  than  300  years 
ago  Belon  witnessed  a  particu- 
larly cruel  experiment  practised 
by  the  boys  in  Crete.  Transfix- 
ing a  beetle  with  a  bent  pin, 
to  the  head  of  which  a  thread 
was  tied,  and  then  holding  its 
other  end  with  their  hand,  they 
would  let  the  insect  fly.  The 
bee-eater,  which  catches  most 
of  its  prey  on  the  wing,  would 
dart  upon  it,  and,  swallowing 
the  bait,  be  caught  by  the 
hook. 

Not  unlike  the  Bee-eaters 
in  general  appearance  and 
coloration,  the  MOTMOTS  are 
birds  of  peculiar  interest,  and 
this  on  account  of  a  remarkable 
habit  of  one  of  their  tribe  —  a 
habit  which  is  perfectly  unique, 
and  to  which  we  shall  return  presently.  Belonging,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  to  the 
New  World,  they  range  from  Southern  Mexico  to  Paraguay,  inhabiting  dense  forests,  and 
being  but  rarely  seen.  The  plumage  is  somewhat  loose  in  character  —  green,  blue,  cinnamon, 
and  black  in  colour.  The  beak  has  the  margins  serrated,  or  saw-like ;  whilst  the  feet 
resemble  those  of  the  Kingfishers  and  Bee-eaters.  As  with  the  Bee-eaters,  no  nest  is  made. 
The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number  and  creamy  white  in  colour,  are  deposited  in  a  hole  bored 
by  the  birds  themselves  in  a  tree  or  bank,  both  sexes  sharing  in  the  work  of  incubation. 
Their  food  consists  of  insects  caught  in  the  air,  small  reptiles,  and  fruit. 

The  remarkable  habit  to  which  we  have  referred  is  displayed  by  the  species  known  as 
the  RACKET-TAILED  MOTMOT,  from  the  fact  that  the  two  middle  tail-feathers  project  beyond 
the  others,  and  have  the  greater  part  of  the  shaft  bare,  but  terminating  in  a  spoon-shaped 
expansion.  In  this  there  is  nothing  unusual,  for  such  racket-feathers  are  common  amongst 
birds.  In  this  particular  case,  however,  the  feathers  were  originally  entire,  and  acquired  their 
characteristic  shape  artificially,  the  bird  nibbling  away  the  vane  on  either  side  of  the  shaft 
with  its  bill  until  the  required  shape  is  obtained.  Such  an  act  of  conscious  decoration  on 
the  part  of  a  bird  is  elsewhere  unknown  throughout  the  whole  class. 

The  TODIES  are  diminutive  allies  of  the  Motmots,  frequenting  hilly  districts  and  woods. 
They  sit  with  the  beak  pointed  upwards,  the  head  drawn  in  close  to  the  body,  and  the  plumage 
puffed  out,  apparently  oblivious  of  all  around  them — at  least  it  would  seem  so,  since  at  such 
times  they  may  be  caught  with  a  butterfly-net.  Like  their  larger  allies,  they  are  green  in 
coloration,  but  have  a  light  red  throat,  and  yellowish-white  or  pinkish  tinder-parts,  with  green 
or  pink  flank-feathers.  They  vary  in  length  from  3  to  4]  inches. 


PhM  If  J.  S.  Rudland  &•  Stm 

BEE-EATER 

A  native  of  the  Malay  countries.     The  long  feathers  on  the  throat  are  bright  scarlet 


112       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  CoLIES,  or  MOUSE-BIRDS,  of  South  Africa  are 
small,  crested,  long-tailed,  loose-plumaged  birds  whose 
exact  relationships  are  somewhat  puzzling.  The  name 
Mouse-bird  is  given  on  account  of  the  habit  of  creeping 
along  the  boughs  of  trees  with  the  whole  foot  applied 
to  the  branch.  The  toes  are  peculiar  in  that  all  turn 
forwards,  and  are  commonly  so  retained.  About  ten 
species  are  known,  ranging  from  Abyssinia  southwards. 

Resplendent  without  doubt  are  the  majority  of  the 
forms  which  we  have  been  lately  considering,  but  prob- 
ably the  palm  for  gorgeous  coloration  should  be  given  to 
the  TROGONS — at  least  they  must  be  allowed  to  share 
the  honours  with  the  Humming-birds. 

The  most  splendid  of  all  is  the  QUEZAL,  the  male 
of  which  has  a  train  of  great  length,  resembling  at  first 
sight  a  tail.  But,  as  in  the  peacock,  this  is  formed 
by  enormously  elongated  tail-coverts,  concealing  the  true 
tail.  These  tail-coverts  differ,  however,  markedly  from 
those  in  the  peacock  in  that  they  are  not  erectile, 
but  pendent.  The  head  is  ornamented  with  a  large, 
rounded  crest;  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper  parts  of 
the  plumage  is  of  brilliant  metallic  green;  the  under 
parts  from  the  chest  downwards  are  of  a  deep  blood-red. 
Certain  of  the  covert-feathers  of  the  wing  form  elegant 
drooping  plumes,  hanging  down  on  either  side  and  giving 
a  wonderfully  beautiful  effect. 

The  late  Mr.  Salvin's  account  of  this  bin.,  in  its 
wild  state  is  well  worth  quoting.  Hunting  with  a 
native  for  this  bird  in  the  forest,  where  alone  it  is  to  be 
met  with,  he  writes :  "  A  distant  clattering  note  indicates 
that  the  bird  is  on  the  wing.  He  settles  —  a  splendid 
male  —  on  a  bough  of  a  tree,  not  seventy  yards  from 
where  we  are  hidden.  Cipriano  wants  to  creep  up  to  within  shot,  but  I  keep  him  back, 
wishing  to  risk  the  chance  of  losing  a  specimen  rather  than  miss  such  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
the  bird  in  its  living  state,  and  of  watching  its  movements.  It  sits  almost  motionless  on  its 
perch,  the  body  remaining  in  the  same  position,  the  head  only  moving  from  side  to  side.  The 
tail  is  occasionally  jerked  open  and  closed  again,  and  now  and  then  slightly  raised,  causing  the 
long  tail-coverts  to  vibrate  gracefully.  I  have  not  seen  all.  A  ripe  fruit  catches  the  quezal's 
eye,  and  he  darts  from  his  perch,  hovers  for  a  moment,  picks  the  berry,  and  returns  to  his 
former  position.  This  is  done  with  a  degree  of  elegance  that  defies  description." 


flal,  ir  A.  S.  RudUnd  <V  S,n, 

RACKET-TAILED  MOTMOT 

Nott  the  mutilated  tail-ftatkert 


CHAPTER    XIV 

TOUCANS,   HONET-GUIDES,    JACAMARS,    ./.\7)    PUFF-BIRDS,    BARRETS 

AND    WOODPECKERS 

GAUDY  in  plumage,  and  somewhat  ungainly  in  appearance,  it  must  nevertheless  lie  admitted 
that  the  T"i  CAMS  form  an  exceedingly  interesting  group  of  birds.     On  account  of  their 
huge  and  gaily  coloured  beaks,  they  have  been  imagined  to  he  related  to  the  Ilornbills; 
but  even  judging  by  this  character,  the  two  groups  may  he  readily  distinguished  ;    for  where. is 
the  typical  beak  of  the  hornbill    is   surmounted   by  a  large  casque,  the  beak  of  the  toucan  is 


TOUCANS    AND    HONEY-GUIDES 


never  so  ornamented.  The  solid  appearance  of  the  beak  in  the  toucan,  by  the  way,  is  as  much 
a  fiction  as  with  the  hornbill,  since  the  horny  sheath  is  supported,  not  on  a  core  of  solid  bone, 
but  on  a  frame  of  delicate  bony  filigree-work,  the  spaces  being  filled  by  air.  The  coloration  of 
the  plumage  (which  is  somewhat  loose  in  character),  as  well  as  of  the  bare  skin  round  the  eye  and 
the  beak-sheath,  is  most  brilliant,  and  displays  immense  variation  amongst  the  different  species. 

Shy  and  restless  in  their  habits,  toucans  travel  generally  in  small  flocks  amongst  the  forest- 
trees  and  mangrove-swamps  in  search  of  food,  which  consists  mainly  of  fruits  and  seeds, 
varying  this  diet  occasionally  with  ants  and  caterpillars.  It  is  to  this  diet  of  fruit  that  the 
great  size  of  the  bill  and  its  peculiar  saw-like  edges  are  to  be  traced  —  at  least  this  is  the 
opinion  of  the  great  traveller-naturalist  Bates,  who  had  so  many  opportunities  of  watching 
these  birds.  "  Flowers  and  fruit,"  he  writes,  "  on  the  crowns  of  the  large  trees  of  South  American 
forests  grow  principally  towards  the  end  of  slender  twigs,  which  will  not  bear  any  considerable 
weight.  All  animals,  therefore,  which  feed  principally  upon  fruit,  or  on  insects  contained  in 
flowers,  must,  of  course,  have  some  means  of  reaching  the  ends  of  the  stalks  from  a  distance. 
Monkeys  obtain  their  food  by  stretching  forth  their  long  arms,  and  in  some  instances  their 
tails,  to  bring  the  fruit  near  to  their 
mouths ;  humming-birds  are  endowed 
with  highly  perfected  organs  of  flight, 
with  corresponding  muscular  develop- 
ment, by  which  they  are  enabled  to  sus- 
tain themselves  on  the  wing  before 
blossoms  whilst  rifling  them  of  their  con- 
tents ;  [and  the  long  bill  of  the  toucan  en- 
ables it]  to  reach  and  devour  fruit  whilst 
remaining  seated,  and  thus  to  counter- 
balance the  disadvantage  which  its  heavy- 
body  and  gluttonous  appetite  would 
otherwise  give  it  in  the  competition  with 
allied  groups  of  birds." 

Toucans  appear  to  be  much  esteemed 
as  articles  of  food  —  at  least  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  when  these 
birds  get  very  fat,  the  flesh  being  ex- 
ceedingly sweet  and  tender.  .  They  nest 
in  holes  of  trees  at  a  great  height  from 
the  ground,  and  lay  white  eggs. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  group  is  the  CURL-CRESTED  TOUCAN,  from  the  fact 
that  the  feathers  on  the  crown  of  the  head  are  peculiarly  modified  to  form  scroll-like,  glossy 
curls,  which  have  been  compared  to  shavings  of  steel  or  ebony.  Mr.  Bates  writes:  "  I  had  an 
amusing  adventure  one  day  with  one  of  these  birds.  I  had  shot  one  from  a  rather  high  tree 
in  a  dark  glen  in  the  forest,  and  entered  the  thicket  where  the  bird  had  fallen  to  secure  my  booty. 
It  was  only  wounded,  and  on  my  attempting  to  seize  it  set  up  a  loud  scream.  In  an  instant, 
as  if  by  magic,  the  shady  nook  seemed  alive  with  these  birds,  although  there  was  certainly 
none  visible  when  I  entered  the  jungle.  They  descended  towards  me,  hopping  from  bough  to 
bough,  some  of  them  swinging  on  the  loops  and  cables  of  woody  lianas,  and  all  croaking  and 
fluttering  their  wings  like  so  many  furies.  If  I  had  had  a  long  stick  in  my  hand,  I  could 
have  knocked  several  of  them  over.  After  killing  the  wounded  one,  I  began  to  prepare  for 
obtaining  more  specimens  and  punishing  the  viragos  for  their  boldness.  But  the  screaming  of 
their  companion  having  ceased,  they  remounted  the  trees,  and  before  I  could  reload  every  one 
of  them  had  disappeared." 

With  neither  charm  of  colour  nor  peculiar  shape,  the  small  African  birds  known  as 
HONEY-GUIDES  are  some  of  the  most  remarkable  of  birds,  and  this  on  account  of  a  quite 


Phote  by  A,  S.  Rudland  &•  Sent 

TROGON 

Trogons  flaunt  the  recesses  of  the  thickest  forestl 


H4      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


unique  habit  of  inducing  other  animals,  not  even  excepting  man,  to  hunt  for  them. 
Sir  John  Kirk,  writing  of  its  habits  in  the  Zambesi  district,  says:  "The  honey-guide  is 
found  in  forests  and  often  far  from  water,  even  during  the  dry  season.  On  observing  a 
man,  it  comes  fluttering  from  branch  to  branch  in  the  neighbouring  trees,  calling  attention. 
If  this  be  responded  to — as  the  natives  do  by  whistling  and  starting  to  their  feet  —  the  bird 
will  go  in  a  certain  direction,  and  remain  at  a  little  distance,  hopping  from  one  tree  to 
another.  On  being  followed,  it  goes  further ;  and  so  it  will  guide  the  way  to  a  nest  of  bees. 
When  this  is  reached,  it  flies  about,  but  no  longer  guides;  and  then  some  knowledge  is 
required  to  discover  the  nest,  even  when  pointed  out  to  within  a  few  trees.  I  have  known 
this  bird,  if  the  man,  after  taking  up  the  direction  for  a  little,  then  turns  away,  come  back 
and  offer  to  point  out  another  nest  in  a  different  part.  But  if  it  does  not  know  of  two  m 
it  will  remain  behind.  The  difficulty  is  that  the  bird  will  point  to  tame  bees  in  a  bark  hive 
as  readily  as  to  those  in  the  forest.  This  is  natural,  as  the  bee  is  the  same,  the  bark 

hive  .  .  .  being  simply  fastened  up  in  a  tree,  and 
left  for  the  bees  to  come  to.  ...  The  object  the 
bird  has  in  view  is  clearly  the  young  bees.  It  will 
guide  to  nests  having  no  honey,  and  seems  equally 
delighted  if  the  comb  containing  the  grubs  is  torn 
out,  when  it  is  seen  pecking  at  it." 

An  old  rumour  had  it  that  honey-guides  occasion- 
ally lured  men  on  to  spots  where  lions  or  other  large 
and  dangerous  beasts  lay  hid.  No  credence  what- 
ever is  now  given  to  such  tales,  it  being  readily 
understood  that  the  bird's  course  may  by  accident 
pass  directly  above  perils  of  this  kind,  without  the 
slightest  cognisance  of  this  on  the  part  of  the  bird. 

The  honey-guide,  however,  proves  into  its  service 
one  of  the  lower  mammals —  the  ratel.  The  fondness 
of  this  animal  for  bees  is  well  known,  and  by  none 
better  than  this  little  bird,  which,  by  pointing  out 
nests  to  its  more  powerful  companion,  earns  as  a 
reward  the  broken  bits  which  remain  after  th<  fe.ist. 
Allies  of  the  sombre-coloured  Honey-guides  are 
the  J.U'AMAKS  and  I'l  1  I--HIKDS.  The  former  are  rather 
handsome  birds,  though  small,  having  the  upper-parts 
of  a  metallic  coppery  golden  green,  and  more  or  less 
rufous  below.  Ranging  from  Mexico  to  South  Hra/.il, 
they  may  usually  be  found  on  the  outskirts  of  forests, 
near  water,  sitting  perched  on  the  bare  boughs  of  lofty  trees  for  hours  at  a  time.  They 
feed  on  moths  and  other  insects,  caught  on  the  wing,  and  brought  back  and  crushed  against 
the  bough  before  swallowing.  They  lay  white  eggs  in  the  holes  of  trees. 

The  PUFF-BIRDS,  though  closely  allied  to  the  ton-going,  are  more  soberly  clad.  Black,  brown, 
and  rufous  in  hue,  they  lack  the  resplendent  metallic  markings  of  the  Jacamars.  Their 
geographical  range  extends  from  Guatemala  and  Honduras  to  Argentina.  Though  numerous 
species  and  genera  are  known,  the  m-st  and  eggs  appear  to  have  been  di>covered  in  the  case 
of  one  species  only:  these  were  found  in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  and  contained  two  shining 
white  eggs. 

The  BARRETS  are  possibly  more  closely  related  to  the  Honey-guides  than  the  Jai-.miars  and 
Puff-birds.  Brilliantly  coloured,  and  having  a  plumage  exhibiting  violent  contrasts  of  red, 
blue,  purple,  and  yellow,  on  a  green  ground,  sometimes  with  crests,  bare  skin  round  the 
eye,  and  brightly  coloured  bills,  the  barbels  are,  in  spite  of  a  somewhat  hairy  appearance, 
exceedingly  attractive  birds. 


fluit  *;  A.  S.  Kudlind  A-  S,n< 

CURL-CRESTED    TOUCAN 

&  callld  from  ike  curiouity  curltJ-  ftalktri  on  the  head, 
niembling  black  and  gliittning  ihavingi 


WOODPECKERS 


Forest-dwellers,  like  their  allies,  they  feed 
upon  fruit,  seeds,  insects,  bark,  and  buds ;  but 
so  noiseless  are  they  said  to  be  when  feeding 
that  their  presence  is  betrayed  only  by  the 
falling  of  berries  they  have  accidentally  released. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  geographical 
range  of  the  barbet  is  much  wider  than  that  of 
its  immediate  allies,  extending  through  tropical 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

The  Woodpecker  Tribe  constitutes  a  large 
group,  generally  divided  into  two  sections  —  the 
WOODPECKERS  and  the  WRYNECKS. 

The  former  are  characterised  by  their  large 
heads  and  very  powerful  bills  and  long  and  ex- 
ceedingly stiff  tails.  The  feet  are  also  peculiar, 
two  toes  pointing  directly  forwards  and  two 
backwards.  Beak,  feet,  and  tail  are  all  specially 
adapted  to  the  peculiar  habits  of  these  birds, 
which  pass  their  lives  upon  trees,  climbing  the 
trunks,  and  searching  the  interstices  of  the  bark 


.  bj  A.  H.  RuJUnd  S?  S,n 

A    FAMILY 


OF   GREATER   SPOTTED    WOODPECKERS 

This  ivoodwker  is  a  British  ipcciti 


PkiU  \>j  A.   S.  Rudland  &•  Sin, 

HONEY-GUIDE 

The  name  is  bestoivcd  on  account  of  its  remarkable  habit  of  draivint 
attention  to  bees'  nests 


for  ants,  or  drilling  holes  into  the  un- 
sound portions  of  the  trunk  itself  for 
the  purpose  of  extracting  the  grubs 
which  feed  upon  decaying  wood. 

That  ants  and  other  small  insects 
form  the  staple  diet  of  the  woodpecker 
isevidentfromtheextraordinarylength 
of  the  tongue.  This  is  a  long,  worm- 
like  structure,  capable  of  being  pro- 
truded many  inches  from  the  beak, and 
covered  with  a  sticky  secretion,  so  that, 
thrust  into  colonies  of  ants,  it  quickly 
becomes  covered  with  them,  to  be  with- 
drawn immediately  into  the  mouth 
and  cleared  again  for  further  action. 

Woodpeckers  are  all  birds  of 
bright  plumage,  some  particularly 
so,  and  have  a  wide  geographical 
distribution,  inhabiting  all  parts  of 
the  world  save  Madagascar,  the 
Australasian  region,  and  Egypt. 

Three  species  occur  in  the  British 
Islands,  though  they  are  exceedingly 
rare  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The 
GREEN  WOODPECKER  is  a  particularly 
handsome  bird.  Grass-green  is  the 
predominating  colour  of  its  livery, 
relieved  by  a  light  scarlet  cap,  a 
golden  patch  over  the  lower  part  of 
the  back,  and  chequered  bars  on  the 
wings  and  quills. 


Il6      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Scarcely  less  beautiful,  in  their  way,  are 
the  GREATER  and  LESSER  SPOTTED  Woi>n- 
I'LCKERS.  The  plumage  of  these  birds  has  a 
very  rich  effect,  steely  blue-black  and  white  being 
contrasted  with  scarlet. 

The  SPOTTED  and  BLACK  WOODPI  >  KI  us 
are  remarkable  for  a  curious  drumming  sound,  so 
powerful  as  to  be  distinctly  audible  even  a  mile 
off".  It  appears  to  be  caused  by  hammering 
vigorously  on  the  bark  of  some  rotten  branch, 
the  bird's  head  moving  with  amazing  rapidity 
as  it  beats  out  this  curious  tattoo. 

Three  North  American  species,  known  as 
SAP-SUCKERS,  have  the  curious  habit  of  piercing 
the  boles  of  trees  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
the  sap  which  flows  copiously  when  the  in 
so  "  tapped."  Another  species  of  the  s.mu  region 
seems  to  be  possessed  of  a  persistent  dread  (if 
famine,  storing  up  immense  quantities  of  nuts, 
which  it  appears  never  afterwards  to  use.  These 
nuts  are  tightly  fixed  into  holes  in  the  bark 
of  trees,  and  in  such  numbers  that  "  a  large 
pine  40  or  50  feet  high  will  present  the  appear- 

>*.»  tf  if.  r.  rtu«i\  [z.«</*t.n  tmcxMrd         ance  of  being  closely  studded  with   brass   nails, 

GREATER  SPOTTED  WOODPECKERS  the  heads  only  being  visible." 
0«  »f  tktmtmttn  of  th,  gnu?  i,  uang  it,  «,ff  tal  ft**tn  »  a  The  VVkV\Li'KS  differ  from  the  Woodpeckers 

support 

mainly  in  that  the  tail-feathers  are  soft  instead 

of  spiny.  Although  sombre,  the  plumage  is  yet  very  beautiful,  having  a  velvety  appearance, 
variegated  with  pearl-grey,  powdered  or  dusted  over  a  general  groundwork  of  nut-brown,  buff, 
and  grey.  Bars  and  fine  lines  add  still  more  to  the  general  effect,  and  render  description 
still  more  difficult.  One  species  is  common  in  England.  It  is  known  also  as  the  CrcK< 
MATE  and  the  SNAKE-BIRD.  The  former  name  is  given  in  allusion  to  the  fact  that  it  arrives 
with  the  cuckoo,  the  latter  from  its  strange  habit  of  writhing  its  head  and  neck,  and  also  on 
account  of  its  curious  hissing  note,  made  when  disturbed  on  its  nest.  It  has  the  long,  worm- 
like  tongue  of  the  woodpecker,  but  without  a  barbed  tip. 

The  habit  of  writhing  the  head  and  neck  often  serves  the  wryneck  in  good  stead.  Nesting 
in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  escape  is  difficult  so  soon  as  the  discoverer  has  come  to  close  quarters. 
The  untried  egg-collector,  for  instance,  peering  down  into  the  nest,  and  seeing  nothing  distinctly, 
but  only  a  moving  head,  and  hearing  a  hissing  sound,  imagines  the  hole  to  be  tenanted  by  a 
snake,  and  beats  a  hasty  retreat,  only  to  catch  a  glimpse,  a  moment  later,  of  the  bird  hurrying 
out  of  its  perilous  hiding-place.  Should  he,  however,  discovering  the  true  state  of  affairs,  put 
down  his  hand  and  seize  the  bird,  it  will  adopt  yet  other  resources.  Clinging  tightly  to  its 
captor's  finger,  it  will  ruffle  up  its  feathers,  stretch  out  its  neck,  and  at  the  same  time  move 
it  jerkily  and  stiffly  about,  and  finally,  closing  its  eyet,  hang  downwards,  as  if  dead.  1  hen, 
before  the  puzzled  captor  has  had  time  to  realise  what  has  happened,  it  loosens  its  hold  and 
takes  instant  flight. 

The  young  are  easily,  though  rarely,  tamed,  and  form  extremely  interesting  pets,  feeding 
readily  from  the  hand,  and  affording  endless  amusement  by  their  remarkable  manner  of 
capturing  flies  and  other  insects;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  live  long  in  confinement. 

The  wryneck  is  one  of  the  few  birds  which  will  persistently  go  on  laying  eggs,  no  matter 
how  many  times  they  may  be  stolen  from  the  nest.  A  case  is  on  record  where  as  many  as 
forty-two  were  laid  in  a  single  summer  by  one  bird — an  exceedingly  cruel  experiment 


CHAPTER     XV 

THE  PERCHING-BIRDS 

SUCH  an  enormous  host  are  included  under  this  head  —  nearly  6,000  out  of  the  total  of 
13,000  known  birds — and  so  great  are  the  difficulties  connected  with  their  systematic 
arrangement,  that  it  has  been  considered  best  to  begin'  the  present  chapter  with  the 
highest  instead  of  the  lowest  types  of  the  group. 

The  extensive  group  of  Perching-birds  is  denned  mainly  from  the  characters  afforded  by 
the  structure  of  the  voice-organ,  and  these  are  of  much  too  technical  a  nature  to  be  discussed 


Mutt  Ar  C.  R,if\  [(fithaw,  N.B. 

JACKDAWS 

//  is  believed  that  the  jackdaw  is  the  tird  referred  to  ty  Shakespeare  as  the  Russet-fated  Chough  (Midsummer-Night's  Dream,  Hi.  2) 

here.     Suffice  it  to  say  that,  on  account  of  these  characters,  the  group  is  further  divided  into 
two  sections,  and  each  section  again  divided  into  two. 

THE  CROWS,  ORIOLES,  FINCHES,  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 

At  the  head  of  the  tribe  stands,  by  general  though  by  no  means  universal  consent,  the 
Crow  Family,  of  which  the  recognised  chief  is  the  RAVEN,  a  bird  which  has  for  thousands  of 
years  commanded  a  more  than  passing  interest  amongst  mankind.  Renowned  as  the  truant 
from  the  Ark,  or  as  the  wonderful  minister  of  the  prophet  Elijah,  there  are  few  even  of  the 
youngest  amongst  us  who  do  not  know  of  its  striking  personality.  The  poet  and  the  dramatist 
have  both  made  use  of  the  raven,  and  it  would  seem  that  it  has  even  found  a  place  in  the 

117 


Il8      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


mythology  of  the  Red  Indian. 
The  smaller  relatives  of  this 
celebrated  bird,  the  ROOK, 
the  CARRION-CROW,  and  the 
JACKDAW,  and  more  distantly 
the  JAY  and  the  MAGPIE,  are 
doubtless  as  familiar  to  our 
readers  as  the  raven. 

Although  probably  un- 
known to  many,  the  CHOUGH, 
with  its  glossy  black  plumage 
and  brilliant  red  bill  and  feet, 
is  a  British  bird,  and  lives 
still  in  certain  parts  of  Eng- 
land, though  fast  verging  on 
extinction. 

Another  very  remarkable 
member  of  the  family  is  the 
HuiA,  and  this  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  male  and 
female  differ  markedly  in 
respect  of  the  shape  of  the 
bill,  this  being  in  the  female 
long  and  sickle-shaped,  and 
in  the  male  short  and  cone- 
shaped.  This  bird  frequents 
the  wooded  regions  of  North 
Island,  New  Zealand,  living 
upon  grubs  found  in  decaying 
wood,  and  on  berries.  The 
female  procures  the  grubs  by 
probing  the  holes  which  they 
have  made  in  the  sounder 
wood,  the  male  by  breaking 
away  the  decayed  portions  of 
the  tree ;  but  occasionally  it 
happens  that,  having  cleared 
away  as  much  of  the  decayed  material  as  possible,  the  latter  is  unable  to  reach  his  prey,  in 
which  case  he  calls  up  the  female,  and  yields  his  find  to  her,  to  extricate  with  her  longer 
bill.  So  great  a  difference  in  the  form  of  the  bill  in  the  sexes  of  the  same  species  is  elsewhere 
unknown  among  birds. 

The  Crows  hold  the  important  position  of  head  of  the  Class  binK  yet  they  arc  far  outshone 
in  splendour  by  many  of  the  groups  already  examined,  though,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of 
the  Humming-birds,  these  all  pale  before  the  BIRDS  <u  PARADI-I  . 

Varying  in  size  from,  a  crow  to  a  thrush,  the  best  known  of  the  latter  is  the  (lur  vr  Hi  KM  <>!•' 
PARADI-I-:,  which  was  discovered  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  if  not  earlier.  (  >n  their 
first  discovery  it  was  popularly  supposed  that  these  birds  lived  in  the  air,  turning  always  to  the 
sun,  and  never  alighting  on  the  earth  till  the)'  died,  for  they  had  neither  feet  nor  wings.  Hence 
the  Malay  traders  called  them  "  God's  Birds, "the  Portuguese  "  Birds  of  the  Sun,"  and  the  Dutch 
"Paradise-birds."  Seventeen  or  eighteen  inches  long,  these  birds  have  the  body,  wings,  and  tail 
of  a  rich  coffee-brown,  which  deepens  on  the  breast  to  a  blackish  violet  or  purple-brown.  1  lie 
top  of  the  head  and  neck  are  of  a  delicate  straw-yellow,  the  feathers  being  short  and  close-set, 


[M.f,  k.  Dr.  K.  U-.  S*,,V.'.; 

BLUE  JAY    (NATURAL  SIZE) 

The  blue  jay  it  <J  most  remarkable  mimu- 


THE    PERCHING    BIRDS 


119 


resembling  velvet.  The  throat-feathers  have  a  scaly  appearance,  and  are  emerald-green  in  colour. 
The  flank-feathers  on  either  side  of  the  body  form  a  dense  mass  of  long,  delicate,  waving 
plumes,  sometimes  2  feet  in  length,  of  an  intense  orange  colour,  and  shining  with  a  wonderful 
gloss.  These  feathers  can  be  raised  and  spread  out  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  almost  conceal  the 
wearer  in  a  fountain-like  rain  of  feathers.  This  wonderful  plumage  is  worn  by  the  male  only, 
the  female  being  quite  plainly  dressed.  In  May,  when  they  are  in  full  dress,  the  males 


Phet,  by  C.  Rtid] 


A   PAIR   OF    MAGPIES 

taken  young,  the  magpie  is  easily  tamed,  and  can  be  taught  to  imitate  human  sounds 


[trishaw,  M  B. 


assemble  early  in  the  morning  to  exhibit  themselves,  forming  what  are  known  as  "  dancing- 
parties,"  which  take  place  on  the  topmost  boughs  of  some  giant  tree.  "  From  a  dozen  to  twenty 
birds  assemble  together,"  writes  Mr.  Alfred  Russell  Wallace,  "  raise  up  their  wings,  stretch' out 
their  necks,  and  elevate  their  exquisite  plumes,  keeping  them  in  continual  vibration.  Between- 
whiles  they  fly  across  from  branch  to  branch  in  great  excitement,  so  that  the  whole  tree  is 
filled  with  waving  plumes  in  every  variety  of  attitude  and  motion."  The  native  hunter  marks 
these  playing-places,  builds  a  shelter  of  palm-leaves  in  a  convenient  situation  among  the  branches, 
and  ensconces  himself  under  it  before  daylight,  armed  with  a  bow  and  a  number  of  arrows 
terminating  in  a  round  knob.  When  the  dance  is  in  full  swing,  he  shoots  through  the  roof  of 
his  shelter  with  the  blunt  arrows,  stunning  every  bird  he  strikes,  which,  falling  down  at  once, 
are  immediately  picked  up  by  a  boy  in  waiting  below.  Often  a  considerable  number  will  be 
thus  secured  before  the  alarm  is  taken. 

Without  coloured  figures,  or  very  numerous  photographs  from  living  birds,  which  we 
can  hardly  hope  to  get,  it  would  be  impossible,  except  at  the  risk  of  being  wearisome,  to 
describe  all  the  wonderful  combinations  of  form  and  colour  which  the  feathers  of  the  birds  of 
paradise  display.  Breast-shields  of  metallic  sheen,  fans  and  crests  in  wonderful  variety,  feathers 
of  a  texture  like  velvet,  or  gorgeous  colours,  confuse  one  in  their  variety  and  combination. 


120      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Phtte  by  StMaitit  Pk-tf.  C), 

CORNISH    CHOUGH 
Vtry  nearly  extinct  as  a  British  bird 


Let  it  suffice  to  mention  only  the  last  dis- 
covered species — the  KING  OK  SAXO.M'S 
BIRD  OF  PARADISE.  "Velvety  black 
above,"  writes  Dr.  Sharpe,  "  and  yellow- 
ish below,  there  is  nothing  very  striking 
in  the  aspect  of  the  bird  itself,  which  is 
smaller  than  our  song-thrush.  But  the 
'  streamers '  which  it  carries  !  Poised  .  .  . 
on  either  side  of  the  head  is  a  long, 
shaft-like  plume,  from  which  depends,  on 
the  lower  side  only,  a  series  of  little  flags 
of  blue  enamel,  each  quite  separate  from 
the  one  which  precedes  it,  and  not  of  a 
feathery  structure  in  the  least." 

Close  allies  of  the  Birds  of  Paradise 
are  the  remarkable  BOWER-BIRDS  of 
Australia.  Conspicuously  beautiful  in 
coloration  as  are  some  members  of  this 
tribe,  they  are  celebrated  not  so  much 
on  this  account  as  for  an  extraordinary 
habit  of  constructing  "bowers  "  or  "  playing-grounds  "  —a  trait  which  appears  absolutely  unique 
among  birds.  "  These  constructions,"  observes  Mr.  Gould,  "  consist  in  a  collection  of  pieces  of 
stick  or  grass,  formed  into  a  bower;  or  one  of  them  (that  of  the  SPOTTED  H<>\VER-»IRD) 
might  be  called  an  avenue,  being  about  3  feet  in  length,  and  7  or  8  inches  broad  inside;  a 
transverse  section  giving  the  figure  of  a  horse-shoe,  the  round  part  downwards.  They  are 

used  by  the  birds  as  a  playing-house,  or  '  run,' 
as  it  is  termed,  and  are  used  by  the  males  to  at- 
tract the  females.  The  '  run  '  of  the  SATIN-BIRD 
is  much  smaller,  being  less  than  i  foot  in  length, 
and,  moreover,  differs  from  that  just  described 
in  being  decorated  with  the  highly  coloured 
feathersofthel'arrotTribe.  ThcSPOTTED  HI  >\\  I:R- 
BIRD,  on  the  other  hand,  collects  around  its  '  run  ' 
a  quantity  of  si  i  >ncs,  shells,  bleached  bones,  etc. ; 
they  are  also 'strewed  down  the  centre  within." 

More  wonderful  still  are  the  structures 
reared  by  the  GARDENEK-WKD  of  New  Guinea, 
presenting,  as  Professor  Newton  remarks,  "not 
only  a  modification  of  bower-building,  but  an 
appreciation  of  beauty  perhaps  unparralleled  in 
the  animal  world.  .  .  .  This  species  .  .  .  builds 
at  the  foot  of  a  small  tree  a  kind  of  hut  or 
cabin  .  .  .  some  2  feet  in  height,  roofed  with 
orchid-stems  that  slope  to  the  ground,  regularly 
radiating  from  the  central  support,  which  is 
covered  with  a  conical  mass  of  moss,  and 
sheltering  a  gallery  around  it.  ( >ne  side  of  this 
hut  is  lelt  open,  and  in  front  of  it  is  arranged 
a  bed  of  verdant  moss,  bedecked  with  blossoms 
and  berries  of  the  brightest  colours.  As  these 
ornaments  wither  they  are  removed  to  a  heap 
behind  the  hut,  and  replaced  by  others  that  are 


KING    BIRD    OF    PARADISE 

A  natfvf  of  Nrw  Guinea  ;  remarkable  far  the  curl 
tail' feat  her  t 


THE    PERCHING     BIRDS 


121 


/.-,  5  4;    If-'.  ff.-,l.'-.i;-.n,  F.f.S, 

QUEENSLAND    RIFLE-BIRD 

This  unique  Australian  representative  of  the  Birds  of  Paradise 
is  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon.  Its  plumage  is  black  'with  a  purple 
sheen  ,•  the  throat  is  brilliant  metallic  emerald-green,  like  that  of  a 
humming-bird 

brown.  Later  black  feathers,  with  large  white 
spots  at  the  tips,  make  their  appearance  among 
the  brown.  These  spotted  feathers  eventually 
replace  the  brown,  and  the  bird  enters  upon  a 
second  quite  distinct  phase  —  a  black,  spotted 
with  white.  Gradually  this  gives  place  to  a 
plumage  entirely  unspotted,  the  feathers  on  the 
breast  being  spear-shaped.  In  the  adult  dress 
a  wondrous  variety  of  metallic  reflections  is 
acquired  —  green,  purple,  and  violet. 

Associating  in  the  autumn  and  winter  in 
large  flocks,  starlings  move  from  place  to  place 
in  search  of  food.  Sometimes  the  number  of 
birds  in  these  combined  flocks  rises  to  an 
enormous  figure.  One  of  the  largest  of  these 
gatherings  recorded  in  England  existed  on  the 
property  of  the  late  Mr.  Miles  near  Bristol. 
"  This  locality  is  an  evergreen  plantation  .  .  . 
covering  some  acres,  to  which  these  birds  repair 


fresh.  The  hut  is  circular  and  some  3  feet 
in  diameter,  and  the  mossy  lawn  in  front  of 
it  nearly  twice  that  expanse.  Each  hut  and 
garden  are,  it  is  believed,  though  not  known, 
the  work  of  a  single  pair  of  birds,  or  perhaps 
of  the  male  only ;  and  it  may  be  observed 
that  this  species,  as  its  trivial  name  implies, 
is  wholly  inornate  in  plumage.  Not  less 
remarkable  is  the  more  recently  described 
'  bower'  of  the  GOLDEN  BOWER-BIRD.  .  .  .  This 
structure  is  said  ...  to  be  piled  up  almost 
horizontally  around  the  base  of  a  tree  to  the 
height  of  from  4  to  6  feet,  and  around  it  are 
a  number  of  hut-like  fabrics,  having  the  look 
of  a  dwarfed  native  camp."  Allied  species, 
though  building  no  bowers,  yet  clear  a  space 
of  ground  some  8  or  9  feet  in  diameter,  on 
which  to  display  themselves,  and  ornament 
this  with  little  heaps  of  gaily  tinted  leaves, 
replacing  them  as  they  fade  with  fresh 
specimens. 

We  pass  next  to  the  birds  of  the  Starling 
Family,  of  which  the  BRITISH  STARLING  is  the 
type.  A  bird  so  familiar  needs  no  description 
here ;  but  we  may  draw  attention  to  the  many 
interesting  phases  of  plumage  this  species 
undergoes. 

The  first   plumage  is    a  uniform    greyish 


Photo  by  W.  Savilli-Ktnl,  F.Z.S. 

RED    BIRD    OF    PARADISE 

Found  only  on  the  small  island  of  Waigiou,  off  the  north-ivest  roast 
of  Neiv  Guinea 


122      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


of  an  evening  ...  by  millions,  from  the  low  grounds  about  the  Severn,  where  their  noise  and 
stench  are  something  altogether  unusual.  By  packing  in  such  myriads  upon  evergreens,  they 
have  stripped  them  of  their  leaves,  except  just  at  the  tops,  and  have  driven  the  pheasants, 
for  whom  the  plantation  was  intended,  quite  away  from  the  ground.  In  the  daytime,  wlun 
the  birds  are  not  there,  the  stench  is  still  excessive.  Mr.  Miles  was  about  to  cut  the  whole 
plantation  down,  to  get  rid  of  them,  two  years  ago,  but  I  begged  him  not  to  do  so,  on  account 
of  the  curiosity  of  the  scene,  and  he  has  since  been  well  pleased  that  he  abstained." 

A  similar  but  still  larger  congregation  has  been  described;  in  this,  about  the  year  1845, 
from  150,000  to  200,000  starlings  were  computed  to  rest  every  night,  between  the  end  of 
October  and  the  end  of  March,  in  certain  trees  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in 
Dublin.  The  roof  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  in  the  heart  of  Dublin,  has  from  time  to  time 
been  resorted  to,  as  many  as 
2,000  seeking  shelter  there. 
"Possessing  very  considerable 
powers  of  wing,"  observes 
Yarrell,  "  these  are  turned  to 
account  in  an  extraordinary 
mannerby  the  birdscomposing 
the  flock.  They  wheel,  close, 
open  out,  rise  and  descend,  as 
if  each  were  obeying  a  com- 
mander, and  all  this  is  done 
with  the  utmost  marvellous 
precision  while  the  flock  is 
proceeding  at  a  rapid  pace 
through  the  air.  At  times  it 
may  extend  in  a  long  and 
nearly  straight  thread; 
suddenly  an  undulation  is  visi- 
ble along  the  line,  and  in  a 
moment  it  takes  the  form  of 
a  thin  and  smoke-like  cloud  ; 
another  moment,  and  it  is 
a  dense  and  almost  perfect 
globe ;  then  possibly,  having 
preserved  this  appearance  for 
a  perceptibly  longer  time,  it 
becomes  pear-shaped,  and  in 
another  instant  has  assumed 
a  spiral  figure ;  an  instant  after 
it  has  spread  out  like  a  sheet,  and  its  members  are  streaming  softly  along  the  ground, 
perhaps  to  alight,  or  perhaps  once  more  to  mount  aloft  and  circle  as  before."  There  are 
few  more  magnificent  sights  in  the  world  than  a  flock  of  starlings  when  performing  evolutions 
of  this  kind. 

Differing  much,  not  only  in  general  appearance,  but  also  in  coloration,  from  the  common 
starling  is  the  ROSE-COLOUR1  i-  Si  \KI.I\<;,  so  called  from  the  beautiful  rose-pink  colour  of  the 
back  and  breast,  set  oft"  by  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  which  is  black,  glossed  with  violet,  blue, 
and  green  reflections.  This,  handsome  bird  occasionally  visits  Britain.  Feeding  largely  upon 
locusts,  these  birds  are  much  affected  in  their  movements  by  the  peregrinations  of  these 
pests;  and  this  accounts  for  the  sporadic  appearance  of  the  rose-coloured  starling  in  huge 
flocks  in  places  where  it  is  generally  seldom  seen. 

Dull  in  appearance,  ungraceful  in  flight,  and  with  a  harsh,  unmusical  note,  the  starling 


. 


YOUNG    STARLINGS 

Starlinfri,  if  taken  tvhen  young,  are  taitly  tamed  and  make  excellent  peri 


THE    PERCHING     BIRDS 


123 


Photo  by  J.  T.   Newman 

COMMON    STARLING 

Starlings  appear  to  he  on  the  increase  in  Scot/and)  "whilst  larks 
are  said  to  be  on  the  decrease,  diving  to  the  destruction  of  their 
eggt  by  the  former 


known  as  the  Ox-PECKER  would  seem  at  first  sight 
to  have  little  to  recommend  it;  yet  it  is  one  of 
the  benefactors  of  the  larger  African  mammals, 
clearing  them  of  flies  and  other  insect-pests. 
Buffaloes,  rhinoceroses,  elephants,  are  alike  grateful 
for  its  services,  as  it  climbs  about  their  huge 
bodies,  picking  off  the  liliputian  enemies  by  which 
they  are  beset.  But  little  appears  to  be  known 
of  the  breeding-habits  of  these  birds. 

In  strong  contrast  to  the  dull-looking  Ox-birds 
arethebeautifulGLOSSYSTARLlNGS  and  CRACKLES. 
The  AFRICAN  GLOSSY  STARLINGS,  indeed,  repre- 
sent the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  members  of  the 
Starling  Tribe.  In  one  of  the  handsomest  and 
best-known  species  —  the  LONG-TAILED  GLOSSY 
STARLING  —  metallic  green  and  purple-violet  are 
the  predominating  tones  in  the  plumage,  glossed 
with  copper  reflections,  and  relieved  by  black  or 
darker  bars  of  green  and  purple.  In  another 
species — the  GREEN  GLOSSY  STARLING  of  East- 
ern Africa — the  shimmer  of  the  plumage  is  so 
wonderful  that  the  exact  shades  of  colour  are  diffi- 
cult to  describe,  in  that  they  change  completely, 
according  to  the  light  in  which  the  bird  is  held. 

The  CRACKLES,  or  HILL-MYNAS,  are  Indian 
birds,  with  glossy  black  plumage,  relieved  by 
bare  flaps  of  yellow  skin  projecting  backwards 
These  birds  make  excellent  pets,  learning  both  to 


from  the  head  immediately  behind  the  eye. 
whistle  and  talk. 

We  come  ROW  to  the  beautiful  ORIOLES — -birds  belonging  to  the  temperate  and  tropical 
parts  of  the  Old  World.  The  males,  as  a  rule,  are  clad  in  a  vestment  of  brilliant  yellow  and 
black,  but  in  some  species  the  under-parts  are  relieved  by  rich  crimson.  One  species — the 
GOLDEN  ORIOLE  —  has  on  several  occasions  visited  the  British  Islands,  and  even  in  one  or  two 
instances  has  nested  there.  But,  as  with  all  brightly  plumaged  birds  in  England,  no  sooner 
is  their  presence  discovered  than  they  are  doomed  to  fall  to  the  gun  of  some  local  collector. 

We  pass  now  to  a  group  of  exceedingly  interesting  birds,  some  of  which  are  remarkable 
on  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  others  from  their  wonderful  nesting-habits.  The 
group  includes  many  faroiliar  as  cage-birds,  such  as  the  LONG-TAILED  WIDOW-BIRDS,  the  RED- 
BEAKED  WAXBILLS,  AMADAVATS,  JAVA  SPARROW,  GRASS-FINCHES,  MUNIAS,  and  so  on,  all  of 
which  are  embraced  under  the  general  title  of  WEAVER-BIRDS,  a  name  bestowed  on  account  of 
their  peculiar  nests. 

Abundant  in  Africa,  and  well  represented  in  South-eastern  Asia  and  Australia,  these  birds 
bear  a  strong  family  resemblance  to  the  Finches,  from  which  they  differ  in  having  ten  primary 
quills  in  the  wings. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  is  the  South  African  LONG-TAILED  WHYDAH-  or  WIDOW-BIRD. 
Strikingly  coloured,  this  bird  is  rendered  still  more  attractive  by  the  extremely  elongated  tail- 
feathers,  which  are  many  times  longer  than  the  body,  so  long,  indeed,  as  to  impede  its  flight, 
which  is  so  laboured  that  children  commonly  amuse  themselves  by  running  the  bird  down. 
Kaffir  children  stretch  lines  coated  with  bird-lime  near  the  ground  across  fields  of  millet  and 
Kaffir  corn,  and  thereby  capture  many  whose  tails  have  become  entangled  among  the  threads. 

In  brilliancy  of  coloration  the  Whydah-birds — for  there  are  several  species — are  pressed  hard 


124       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


by  the  BlSHOP-BlRUS,  the  handsomest  of  which  is  the  red  species.  Sociable  in  habits,  this 
bird  throughout  the  year  consorts  in  immense  flocks,  which  in  the  summer  consist  chiefly 
of  males. 

Of  the  more  remarkable  nest-builders,  the  most  conspicuous  are  the  B.\YA  SPARROWS,  or 
TODDY-BIRDS,  of  India  and  Ceylon,  and  the  SOCIABLE  WKAVERS.  The  former  suspend  their  ne^ts 
by  a  solidly  wrought  rope  of  fibre  from  the  under  side  of  a  branch,  the  rope  expanding  iir 
globular  chamber,  and  then  again  contracting  into  a  long,  narrow,  vertical  tube,  through  which 
the  birds  make  their  exit  and  entrance.  The  latter — the  SOCIABLK  WKAVKR-BIRD  of  Africa- 
builds  a  still  more  wonderful  structure.  As  a  thing  apart  it  has  no  existence,  a  number  of 
birds,  varying  from  100  to  300,  joining  their  nests  together,  so  as  to  form  a  closely  interwoven 
structure,  resembling,  when  finished,  a  gigantic  mushroom.  The  structure  is  built  .among  the 
branches  of  large  trees,  so  that  the  tree  looks  as  though  it  had  grown  up  through  a  native 
hut,  carrying  the  roof  with  it.  Cartloads  of  grass  are  required  to  rear  this  structure,  which 
is  nearly  solid.  Seen  from  below,  it  presents  a  flat  surface  riddled  with  holes ;  these  are  the 

entrances  to  the  nests. 

Closely  resembling  the  typical 
Finches    in    general    appearance, 

.^—  -^.  and  often  gorgeous  in  coloration,  is 

Bk  ._  ^^^  /r^-^.  Y""~       the  group  known  as  the  TANAGERS, 

of  which  more  than  400  distinct 
species  are  known  to  science.  F.\- 
clusively  American,  the  majority 
of  the  species  are  found  in  Central 
and  South  America,  though  a  few 
move  northwards  into  the  United 
States  in  summer.  The  most 
beautiful  are  the  SCARI  i  r, 
CKIMSON-IIKADKD,  and  Wiirn-:- 
CA1TKD  TANAdKKS.  The  last- 
named  is  generally  allowed  to  be 
the  loveliest  of  the  group.  The 
entire  plumage  of  both  sexes  is  a 
beautiful  cornflower-blue,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cap  of  silvery-white 
feathers,  a  crimson  spot  on  the 
forehead  looking  like  a  drop  of 
blood.  The  identical  coloration  of  the  sexes  is  worth  noting,  as  among  the  tanagers  generally 
the  female  is  dull-coloured. 

Among  the  Finches  there  is  a  considerable  variety  of  coloration,  though  but  little  in 
bodily  form;  they  are  all  attractive  birds,  and  have  the  additional  advantage  that  many  are 
British.  Distributed  over  both  the  northern  and  temperate  regions  of  the  Kastern  and 
Western  Hemispheres,  they  are  unknown  in  Australia.  The  group,  which  comprises  a  very 
large  number  of  species,  may  be  divided  into  three  sections— Gk<>H',i.AK.s,  Tiui:  I-'i. \vnr.s,  and 

BUNTINGS. 

The  GROSBEAKS,  as  their  name  implies,  are  characterised  by  the  great  stoutness  of  the 
beak,  and  some,  as  the  K\  I:\IM,  <;i«  ISHKAKS  of  America,  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty. 

Among  the  well-known  British  members  are  the  II\\vil\<  iu>  and  (ikl  I  \i-i\i  ill-. 
Common  in  many  parts  of  Kngland,  though  rare  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  the  I  IA\VI  i\<  11  contrives 
to  make  itself  much  disliked  by  the  gardener,  owing  to  its  fondness  for  peas,  though  it 
fully  compensates  for  the  damage  done  in  this  direction  by  the  numbers  of  noxious  insects 
it  destroys.  The  n<M  i>  a  very  beautiful  structure;  outside  it  is  composed  of  twigs  inter- 
mixed with  lichens,  inside  of  dry  grasses  lined  with  fine  roots  and  hair.  The  site  chosen 


Fhu 


HAWFINCH 

A  resident  in  ihi  eauer  n  and  midland  counritt  of  England 


Ptte'e  br  C.   Ktid 


YOUNG    CHAFFINCHES 

The  chaffinch  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  British  finches 


Phala  k>  C.   Rlid 


HOUSE-SPARROWS 

The  sparroiv  is  to  be  reckoned  among  the  fe-iv  really  harmful  birds 
125 


126       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


BULLFINCH 

Bleu\  varieties  are  occational/v  taken  in  a  wild  state.    Caged 
ifecimentfed  on  kcmp-ietd  frequently  turn  black 


varies,  a  favourite  place  being  an  old  apple-  or  pear- 
tree  in  an  orchard  ;  but  the  woods  and  fir  plantations 
are  not  seldom  resorted  to.  The  GREENFINCH  is  an 
equally  common  British  bird.  Of  a  more  confiding 
disposition  than  the  hawfinch,  it  makes  an  excellent 
cage-bird,  becoming  with  judicious  treatment  exceed- 
ingly tame.  It  is  a  useful  bird,  travelling  during  the 
autumn  and  winter  in  large  flocks,  and  feeding  on 
the  seeds  of  wild  mustard  and  other  weeds.  Its  nest 
differs  conspicuously  from  that  of  the  hawfinch,  being 
a  somewhat  untidy  structure,  composed  of  fibrous 
roots,  moss,  and  wool,  lined  with  finer  roots,  horse- 
hair, and  feathers. 

Among  the  TRUE  FINCHES,  distinguished  from 
the  Grosbeaks  by  their  less  powerful  bills,  are  several 
other  well-known  British  birds.  Of  these,  none  are 
better  known  than  the  CHAFFINCH.  Gay  in  appear- 
ance and  sprightly  in  habit,  this  is  a  general  favourite 
everywhere,  and  much  in  demand  as  a  cage-bird. 
His  short  though  delightful  song  possesses  a  peculiar 
charm,  coming  as  it  does  with  the  earliest  signs  of 
returning  spring.  •  The  fascination  of  this  song  has 
never  been  better  expressed  than  in  Browning's  lines:  — 

O  to  be  in  England 

Now  that  April 's  there  ; 

And  whoever  wakes  in  England 

Sees,  some  morning,  unaware, 

That  the  lowest  boughs  of  the  brushwood  sheaf 

Round  the  elm-tree  bole  are  in  tiny  leaf, 

While  the  Chaffinch  sings  on  the  orchard  bough 

In  England  now  ! 

The  nest,  which  is  an  exceptionally  beautiful  structure,  takes  about  a  fortnight  to  build. 
Closely  woven,  it  appears  to  consist  mainly  of  wool,  into  which  moss  and  lichens  of  various 
colours  are  deftly  woven.  The  outside  is  cunningly  decorated  with  bits  of  lichen  and  the 
inner  bark  of  trees,  such  as  the  birch,  the  whole  being  secured  by  a  thin  veil  of  spiders'  webs. 
The  lichen  and  bark  serve  to  render  the  nest  inconspicuous  by  blending  it  with  the  general 
appearance  of  the  bush  or  small  tree  in  a  forked  bough  of  which  it  is  placed.  Inside  the 
wool  is  more  closely  felted  even  than  on  the  outside,  and  this  is  covered  with  tine  hairs, 
amongst  which  a  few  feathers  are  intermixed.  The  work  of  building  seems  to  be  done  by  the 
female  only,  though  the  male  helps  by  bringing  the  materials. 

Of  the  GOLDFINCH,  I.INM.IS,  and  Hu.u  i\<  n,  by  far  the  most  popular  and  beautiful  is  the 
GOLDFINCH,  which  is,  and  probably  will  long  remain,  one  of  the  most  pri/.ed  of  cage-birds. 
Gifted  "with  the  fatal  gift  of  beauty."  this  bird  is  much  persecuted  by  bird-catchers;  and 
indeed,  partly  owing  to  the  depredations  of  these  men,  and  partly  t<>  improved  methods  of 
agriculture,  which  have  diminished  its  feeding-area,  this  handsome  bird  is  growing  more  and 
more  rare  every  year. 

Next  to  the  goldfinch  perhaps  the  I.IXNKI  is  most  sought  after  as  a  cage-bird.  Large 
numbers  are  taken  during  the  autumn,  when  the  birds  congregate  in  large  (locks  before 
departure  on  migration.  Those  captured  in  the  spring  are  said  to  be  very  impatient  of 
confinement,  and  only  a  small  percentage  seem  to  survive. 

The  linnet  is  one  of  the  most  variable  of  birds  in  the-  matter  of  plumage,  and  for  a  l'>ng 
while  the  opinion  was  generally  held,  especially  by  bird-catchers,  that  several  distinct  species — 


THE    PERCHING-BIRDS 


127 


the  RED,  BROWN,  and  GREY  LINNETS — existed.  It  is  now  known  that  these  are  all  phases  of 
plumage  common  to  one  species.  In  the  male  in  full  summer  dress  the  forehead  and  centre 
of  the  crown  are  blood-red,  whilst  the  breast  is  of  a  glossy  rose-red ;  but  these  bright  colours 
do  not  seem  to  be  acquired  so  universally  as  is  the  case  with  other  birds  which  don  a  special 
breeding-dress,  nor  are  they  ever  developed  in  captivity.  Occasionally  what  are  called  LEMON- 
BREASTED  varieties  of  the  linnet  occur  in  which  the  rose-colour  of  the  breast  is  replaced  by  yellow. 

The  BULLFINCH,  though  one  of  the  common  British  birds,  is  by  no  means  so  abundant  as 
the  two  foregoing  species ;  for  whilst  the  other  two  travel  in  small  flocks,  the  bullfinch  is  a 
solitary  bird.  Few  birds  perhaps  have  earned  a  more  evil  name  than  the  bullfinch,  which 
is  accused  by  the  gardener  of  inflicting  enormous  damage  on  the  flower-buds  of  fruit-trees  in 
winter  and  spring.  "  On  the  other  hand,"  writes  Mr.  Hudson,  "  he  is  greatly  esteemed  as  a 
cage-bird,  and  the  bird-catchers  are  ever  on  the  watch  for  it.  But  the  effect  in  both  cases 
is  pretty  much  the  same,  since  the  hatred  that  slays  and  the  love  that  makes  captive  are 
equally  disastrous  to  the  species."  That  it 
is  diminishing  in  many  districts  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  and  perhaps  its  final  extermination 
is  only  a  matter  of  time.  Though  by  no 
means  a  remarkable  songster  in  a  wild  state, 
in  captivity  it  is  capable  of  learning  to  whistle 
strains  and  airs  of  human  composition  with 
some  skill,  good  performers  fetching  high 
prices. 

The  SPARROW  and  the  wild  CANARY  of 
Madeira  —  from  the  latter  of  which  our  cage- 
pets  have  been  derived  —  are  also  members  of 
the  Finch  Tribe,  but  are  too  well  known  to 
need  fuller  mention. 

Closely  allied  to  the  finches  are  the 
BUNTINGS,  which  are  really  only  slightly 
modified  finches.  Several  species  are  British 
birds,  one  of  the  commonest  being  the  CORN- 
BUNTING,  a  bird  which  bears  a  wonderful 
resemblance  to  a  skylark,  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  large 
beak  and  small  claw  on  the  hind  toe. 

The  YELLOWAMMER,  or  YELLOWHAM- 
MER,  is  another  familiar  roadside  form  in 


Pheto  by  J.  T.  Newman 

GREENFINCH 

Commonly  known  as  the  Green  Linnet 


England,  which  scarcely  needs  description. 

The  most  celebrated  of  all  the  buntings 

is  the  ORTOLAN,  or  GREEN-HEADED  BUNTING,  a  bird  resembling  its  congener  the  yellowhammer, 
but  lacking  its  bright  coloration.  It  has  acquired  fame  from  the  delicate  flavour  of  its  flesh, 
and  to  supply  the  demand  for  this  delicacy  immense  numbers  are  netted  annually  by  the 
bird-catchers  of  the  Continent.  Wintering  in  North  Africa,  these  birds  leave  Europe  in 
September  in  large  flocks,  and  it  is  during  this  migration  and  the  return  journey  in  the 
spring  that  their  ranks  are  so  mercilessly  thinned.  Common  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  the  ortolan  does  not  occur  more  frequently  in  the  British 
Islands,  where  it  is  only  an  occasional  spring  and  autumn  visitor. 

The  SNOW-BUNTING,  or  SXOWFLAKE,  is  a  regular  winter  visitant  to  the  British  Islands,  some 
pairs  indeed  remaining  to  breed  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  every  year,  whilst  its  presence 
serves  to  enliven  some  of  the  dreariest  spots  of  high  northern  latitudes.  The  male  in 
breeding-dress  is  a  handsome  bird,  having  the  upper-parts  black  and  the  under  white;  its 
mate  is  somewhat  duller,  the  black  parts  being  obscured  by  greyish  white,  fulvous,  and  blackifh 


128       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Phu,  tf  If.  F.  P!gt"t 

LINNET 

One  of  tkt  man  popular  cage-birds.       Tilt  to-called  Red-brown  and  Grey  Linneli  art  but  phases  of  plumage  of  the  same  sfrfits.       The  bird 

in  the  ~ight-hand  corner  it  a  greenfinch 

brown,  whilst  the  white  parts  are  less  pure  in  tone.  The  full  iln-ss  of  the  male  is  rarely 
seen  in  the  British  Islands,  save  in  specimens  procured  from  Scotland  ;  for  in  winter,  when  the 
snow-bunting  is  chiefly  captured,  the  plumage  is  altogether  more  rufous. 

Unlike  the  buntings  so  far  described,  the  KKKD-WNTIM;  is  to  be  found  only  in  marshy 
places,  but  in  suitable  localities  it  may  be  found  in  the  British  Islands  all  the  year  round,  being 
as  common  a  species  as  the  corn-bunting,  and  therefore  not  calling  for  special  description  hrre. 

The  eggs  of  the  buntings  are  remarkable  for  the  curious  scribble-like  markings  which 
cover  them,  and  serve  readily  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  any  other  British  bird. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

LARKS,    TITMICE,   HONEY-E.A'1'KRS,     /\I)    Til  KIR    A7.\ 

CONFINED  almost  entirely  to  the  Old  World,  where  they  arc  represented  by  more  than 
one  hundred  species,  many  of  which  have  undergone  considerable  specialisation  in  the 
matter  of  plumage,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  live  in  desert  regions,  the  I  .AUKS  constitute 
a  well-marked  group,  into  the  characters  of  which  we  need  not  enter  here. 

The  best-known  member  of  the  group  is  the  SKVI.AUK.  Common  throughout  the  British 
Islands,  and  of  sober  coloration,  no  bird  is  more  universally  beloved,  and  this  largely  on 
account  of  the  sweetness  of  its  vug,  which  is  second  only  to  th.it  of  the  nightingale.  1' 
and  prose-writers  alike  have  sounded  its  praises,  many  in  passages  that  will  be  remembered  as 
long  as  our  language  lasts.  The  skylark  is  one  of  the  few  birds  which  sing  while  mi  the 
wing;  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  (light  at  this  time  all  must  have  watched,  entrained  tin- 
while  by  the  beauty  of  the  « 


I 


Photo  by  C.  l\cnl,   ll'tsliaw. 

WAXB1LLS. 
Wax-bills  are  relatives  of  the  Weaver  birds,  and  take  their  name  from  the  waxen  appearance  of  the  beak  which  is  coral  red 


INDIGO    FINCHES 

The  Indigo  Kinrh  or  Indigo  Bird  is  a  well  known  member  of  a  group  of  American  Kindles 
of  which  the  Nonnareil  Finch  is  another  ivpreser.tiiiix.. 


LARKS,    TITMICE,    HONEY-EATERS,    THEIR    KINDRED         129 

Grahame,  in  his  "Birds  of  Scotland,"  happily  describes  the  nest  as  follows:  — 

The  daisied  lea  he  loves,  where  tufts  of  grass 
Luxuriant  crown  the  ridge  ;  there,  with  his  mate, 
He  founds  their  lowly  house,  of  withered  bents, 
And  coarsest  speargrass ;  next,  the  inner  work 
With  finer  and  still  finer  fibres  lays, 
Rounding  it  curious  with  its  speckled  breast. 

This  bird  displays  great  affection  for  its  young,  removing  them  under  the  fear  of  impending 
danger,  or  if  the  nest  is  meddled  with.  Occasionally,  however,  the  bird  sits  close,  instead  of 
seeking  safety  by  flight. 

Brighton  enjoys  the  credit  of  consuming  more  larks  than  any  other  place  in  England,  except 
London.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  number  of  larks  annually  entering  the  metropolitan 
markets  alone  reaches  a  total  of  400,000 —  20,000  or  30,000  being  often  sent  together;  and  the 
numbers  eaten  elsewhere  in  the  country  must  be  enormous,  quite  as  large,  indeed,  as  abroad. 
Most  are  captured  from  the  hosts  which  arrive  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  and  England 
from  the  Continent  on  approach  of  severe  weather,  the  birds  making  their  appearance  in 
thousands,  forming  a  constant  and  unbroken  stream  for  two  or  three  days  in  succession. 

Close  allies  of  the  Larks,  the  WAGTAILS  and  PIPITS  come  next  under  consideration.  The 
former  range  over  the  Old  World,  but  are  unknown  in  Australia  and  Polynesia.  The  pipits 
have  a  similar  range,  but  one  species  is  found  in,  and  is  peculiar  to,  Australia.  Like  wagtails, 
pipits  are  unknown  in  Polynesia;  only  two  species  occur  in  America. 

The  WAGTAILS  are  generally  black  and  white,  grey  and  white,  grey  with  yellow  breasts, 
or  yellowish  green  with  yellow  breasts.  In  the  last-mentioned  case,  as  in  some  specimens  of 
the  YELLOW  WAGTAIL,  the  yellow  predominates.  These  birds  frequent  streams  and  stagnant 
waters,  like  the  RED  and  GREY  WAGTAILS;  or  corn-fields  and  meadows,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
YELLOW  WAGTAIL.  All  these  are  commonly  met  with  in  the  British  Islands. 


fhti  t>  C.  Riif] 


SKYLARKS 

The  numbers  of  tkylarki  teem  to  increase  with  the  ifread  of  agricultural  improvement 


130     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  PIPITS  are  duller-coloured  than  the  Wagtails,  have  shorter  tails,  and  evince  less 
fondness  for  the  water.  The  MEADOW-,  ROCK-,  and  TRKE-I'IHTS  are  the  commonest  British  species. 
Neither  Wagtails  nor  .Pipits  are  much  given  to  perching,  but  tne  TREE-CREEPKKS  spend 
their  lives  upon  trees,  some  being  specially  modified  for  this  mode  of  life,  their  tail-feathers 
being  stiff  and  terminating  in  sharp  points.  By  pressing  its  tail  closely  against  the  tree-trunk 
up  which  it  is  climbing,  the  bird  obtains  a  wonderfully  reliable  support.  Beginning  at  the 
bottom  of  a  trunk,  creepers  quickly  work  their  way  up  in  a  spiral  direction,  or  sometimes 
in  jerky  zigzags,  searching  every  crevice  for  tiny  insects,  their  eggs  and  larvae,  and  flitting 
from  the  higher  branches,  when  these  are  reached,  to  the  base  of  another  tree. 

.  Creepers  are  mostly  dull-coloured,  but  the  WALL-CREEPER  has  crimson  patches  on  the 
wings.  This  bird,  which  has  occurred  in  Britain,  haunts  mountain-cliffs.  The  TREE-CREEI'KR, 
a  resident  in  Britain,  builds  its  nest  behind  pieces  of  loose  bark,  or  under  tiles,  or  in  crevices 
of  trees,  walls,  or  hollow  branches.  In  this  nest  are  laid  from  six  to  nine  eggs,  pure  white, 
spotted  with  red,  or  with  a  creamy  ground-colour,  with  the  spots  thicker  round  the  large  end. 

Intermediate  in  position  between  the 
Creepers  and  the  Titmice  are  the  N IT- 
HATCHES.  Chiefly  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
parts  of  both  hemispheres,  they  extend  as 
far  south  as  Mexico,  whilst  in  the  Old 
World  they  occur  plentifully  in  the  Himalaya. 
The  largest  species  is  found  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Burma.  One  species  is  frequently 
met  with  in  England,  and  occasionally  in 
Scotland,  but  is  unknown  in  Ireland. 

The  ENGLISH  NUTHATCH  may  serve  us 
as  a  type  of  the  group.  "  Its  habits,"  writes 
Dr.  Sharpe,  "  are  a  combination  of  those  of 
the  tit  and  woodpecker.  Like  the  former 
bird,  the  nuthatch  seeks  diligently  for  its 
insect-food  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of 
trees,  over  which  it  runs  like  a  woodpecker, 
with  this  difference,  that  its  tail  is  not  pres-ed 
into  the  service  of  climbing  a  tree,  nor  does 
it  generally  ascend  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top,  as  a  woodpecker  so  often  does.  On  the 
contrary,  a  nuthatch  will  generally  be  found 
in  the  higher  branches,  and  will  work  its 
way  down  from  one  of  the  branches  towards  the  trunk,  and  is  just  as  much  at  home  on 
the  under  side  of  a  limb  as  the  upper.  Its  movements  are  like  those  of  a  mouse  rather 
than  of  a  bird,  and  it  often  runs  head-downward,  or  hangs  on  the  under  side  of  a  branch  and 
hammers  away  at  the  bark  with  its  powerful  little  bill.  The  noise  produced  by  one  of  these 
birds,  when  tapping  at  a  tree,  is  really  astonishing  for  a  bird  of  its  si/e,  and,  if  undisturbed. 
it  can  be  approached  pretty  closely.  Its  general  food  consists  of  insects,  and  in  the  winter  the 
nuthatches  join  the  wandering  parties  of  tits  and  creepers  which  traverse  the  woods  in  search 
of  food.  ...  In  the  autumn  it  feeds  on  hazel-nuts  and  beech-mast,  breaking  them  open  by 
constant  hammering;  and,  like  the  tits,  the  nuthatches  can  be  tempted  to  the  vicinity  of 
houses  in  winter,  and  become  quite  interesting  by  their  tamenes,." 

The  nuthatch  nests  in  hollow  trees,  plastering  up  the  entrance  with  mud,  and  leaving  an 
aperture  only  just  sufficient  to  enable  it  to  wriggle  in  and  out.  A  remarkable  nest  may  be 
seen  at  the  British  Natural  History  Museum.  It  was  built  in  the  side  of  a  haystack,  to  which 
the  industrious  birds  had  carried  as  much  as  i  i  Ihs.  of  clay,  and  had  thus  made  for  themselves 
a  solid  nest  in  an  apparently  unfavourable  position. 


Phut  f,  A.  S.  Rud'.anl  &  Sint 

YOUNG   SKYLARKS 

Several  trooat  art  reared  by  tack  fair  of  tirjs  in  a  uaton 


LARKS,    TITMICE,    HONEY-EATERS,    THEIR    KINDRED          131 


Photo  A,   7    T    Ntwman 


The  TITMICE  occur  in  one  form  or  another 
all  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  in  the 
New  World  as  far  south  as  Southern  Mexico. 
The  family  may  be  divided  intoTRUE.CRESTED, 
L(  >NG-TAILED,  and  PENDULlNETlTS  and  REED- 
LINGS,  all  but  the  penduline  tits  being  repre- 
sented in  England. 

Of  the  true  tits,  the  best  known  is  the 
BLUE  TlT,  which  is  no  stranger  even  in  London 
parks.  Traveling  in  small  bands  throughout 
the  autumn  and  winter,  they  may  frequently 
be  met  with  during  a  country  walk,  their 
presence  being  made  known  by  a  pretty  tink- 
ling little  note.  This  method  of  traveling 
is  obviously  advantageous,  for  the  discovery 
of  food  at  this  time  is  an  arduous  task,  and, 
if  undertaken  individually,  many  would  surely 
starve,  as  Professor  Newton  points  out :  "  A 
single  titmouse  searching  alone  might  hunt 
for  a  whole  day  without  meeting  with  a 
sufficiency,  whilst,  if  a  dozen  are  united  by 
the  same  motive,  it  is  hardly  possible  for 
the  place  in  which  the  food  is  lodged  to 
escape  their  detection,  and,  when  discovered, 
a  few  call-notes  from  the  lucky  finder  are 
enough  to  assemble  the  whole  company  to 
share  the  feast.  .  .  .  One  tree  after  another 
is  visited  by  the  active  little  rovers,  and  its 
branches  examined  :  if  nothing  be  forthcoming, 

away  goes  the  explorer  to  the  next  that  presents  itself,  merely  giving  utterance  to  the  usual 
twitter  that  serves  to  keep  the  whole  body  together.  But  if  the  object  of  search  be  found, 
another  chirp  is  emitted,  and  the  next  moment  several  members  of  the  band  are  flitting  in 
succession  to  the  tree,  and  eagerly  engaged  with  the  spoil." 

These  little  birds  display  great  affection  for  their  old  nesting-places.  An  instance  is  on 
record  where,  so  far  back  as  1785,  a  pair  built  their  nest  in  a  large  earthenware  bottle  placed 
in  the  branches  of  a  tree  in  a  garden  at  Oxbridge,  near  Stockton-on-Tees.  With  two  exceptions 
only,  this  bottle  was  tenanted  by  a  pair  of  these  birds  every  year  till  1873.  In  1892  Professor 
Newton,  who  had  this  account  from  Canon  Tristram,  was  informed  that  the  occupancy  had 
ceased  for  four  years. 

The  LONG-TAILED  or  BOTTLE-TIT  is  a  British  species,  deriving  its  name  from  the  long  tail. 
It  is  a  pretty  little  bird,  black  and  rose-colour  above,  with  a  rose-coloured  abdomen,  and  the 
head,  throat,  and  breast  white.  It  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  smallest  British 
birds,  and  is  found  in  woods  and  plantations  all  over  England,  though  less  common  in 
Scotland.  These  tits  have  a  curious  habit  of  roosting  during  the  winter,  six  or  seven  huddling 
together  in  a  row,  with  three  or  four  others  perched  on  their  backs,  and  two  or  three  on 
the  top. 

The  nest,  which  is  placed  in  a  tree  or  bush,  is  a  model  of  industry.  Oval  in  shape, 
and  roofed,  with  a  small  aperture  near  the  top,  it  is  composed  of  moss,  lichen,  and  hair, 
closely  felted  and  lined  with  an  enormous  collection  of  feathers,  Macgillivray  having  counted 
2,779  in  a  single  nest. 

Other  species  of  titmice  occurring  in  Britain  are  the  GREAT,  MARSH-,  COAL-,  and 
CRESTED  TITS. 


NUTHATCH 


132       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


7-  r. 
MARSH-TIT   SEARCHING    FOR    INSECTS 

marth'tit  may  be  distinguished1  from  itt  ally ,  the  coal-tit ,  />y  Mr  absence  of 
white  on  the  nafe  of  the  neci 


Whether  the  REKIU.IM.S,  or 
I'.i  \RDi:i)  Trrs,  as  they  arc  generally 
called,  are  really  true  titmice  or 
peculiarly  modified  buntings  is  a 
moot-point.  There  is  but  one  specie-, 
which  is  British,  though  found  also 
on  the  Continent;  but  it  is  un- 
fortunately becoming  more  and  more 
rare  every  year.  The  general  colour 
of  the  upper-parts  is  cinnamon- 
rufous,  except  the  head,  which  is 
pearly  grey:  between  the  bill  and 
the  eyes  hangs  a  tuft  of  long  black 
feathers;  hence  the  name  Bearded 
Tit.  The  undcr-parts  arc  white, 
tinged  with  yellow  and  pink,  whilst 
the  wings  arc  variegated  with  white, 
black,  and  red.  This  tit  lives  in  beds 
of  reeds  fringing  the  "  broads"  of  the 
eastern  counties  of  Kngland,  though 
even  there  it  is  now  exceedingly  ran-. 
The  same  uncertainty  that  obtains 
with  regard  t.)  the  position  of  the 
Keedlings  confronts  the  ornithologist 
with  regard  to  the  affinities  of  the 
liliputian  Goi.D-t  RI:S  i  s.  About  six 
species  are  known,  from  the  northern  and  temperate  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  extending 
as  far  south  in  the  latter  as  Mexico.  Two  occur  in  Britain:  one,  known  simply  as  the  (i<n.i»- 
CREST,  or  GOLDEN-CRESTED  WREN,  is  fairly  common;  the  other,  the  FIRE-CREST,  or  FIRE-CRESTED 

WREN,  is  much  rarer,  but  differs  very  little  from  its  relative  in  general  appearance. 

The  GOLD-CREST  is  olive-green  above,  yellowish  grey  below,  with  a  conspicuous  crest  of 
bright  yellow  and  orange,  banded  on  each  side  by  two  black  lines.  It  has  the  distinction 
of  being  the  smallest  British  bird;  and  it  is  partly  on  account  of  its  smalhn-ss,  and  partly 
owing  to  its  shy,  retiring  habits,  seeking  concealment  among  the  foliage,  that  it  is  so  seldom 
seen,  save  by  those  who  know  where  to  look  for  it;  and  these  may  find  it  all  the  year  round 
in  suitable  places. 

In  the  spring  this  bird  may  be  observed  suspended  in  the  air  for  a  considerable  time  over 
a  bush  or  flower,  singing  very  melodiously,  though  few  naturalists  have  ever'  witnessed  this 
display.  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson,  one  of  these  few,  writes:  "  I  have  observed  the  male,  in  the  love- 
season,  hovering  just  above  the  bush,  in  the  topmost  foliage  of  which  its  mate  was  perched 
and  partly  hidden  from  view.  It  is  when  engaged  in  this  pretty  aerial  performance,  or  love- 
dance,  that  the  golden-crested  wren  is  seen  at  his  best.  The  restless,  minute,  sober-coloured 
creature,  so  difficult  to  see  properly  at  other  times,  then  becomes  a  conspicuous  and  exceedingly 
beautiful  object;  it  hovers  on  rapidly  vibrating  wings,  the  body  in  an  almost  vertical  position, 
but  the  head  bent  sharply  down,  the  eyes  being  fixed  on  the  bird  beneath,  while  the  wide  open 
crest  shines  in  the  sun  like  a  crown  or  shield  of  fiery  yellow.  When  thus  hovering,  it  does 
not  sing,  but  emits  a  series  of  sharp,  excited  chirping  sounds." 

The  nest  is  a  singularly  beautiful  structure,  made  of  fine,  dry  grass,  leaves,  moss,  and 
spiders'  webs,  woven  closely  together,  lined  with  feathers,  and  suspended  like  a  hammock 
beneath  a  branch  of  yew  or  fir.  In  this  are  laid  from  six  to  ten  eggs  of  a  pale  yellowish 
white,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish  brown. 

The  numbers   of  British  gold-crests  are  vastly  increased  by  the  arrival  on  the  eastern 


GREAT    TIT 

Known  also  as  the  Ox-eye ;   it  is  -very  fugnacious  in  captivity,  killing  birds  e-Jen  as  large  as  itself 

133 


,  N.  B. 


134       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

coast  of  gold-crests  from  the  Continent.  "  In  autumn,"  writes  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  "  immense 
flocks  sometimes  arrive  on  our  east  coast,  extending  quite  across  England  and  the  Irish 
Channel,  and  into  Ireland.  In  1882  the  migration  wave  of  this  description,  commencing  on 
August  6  and  lasting  for  ninety-two  days,  reached  from  the  Channel  to  the  Faeroes;  in  1883 
the  migration  lasted  eighty-two  days;  and  again  in  1884  for  a  period  of  eighty-seven  days.  .  .  . 
On  such  occasions  bushes  in  gardens  on  the  coast  are  covered  with  birds  as  with  a  swarm  of 
bees;  crowds  flutter  round  the  lanterns  of  lighthouses,  and  the  rigging  of  fishing-smacks  in 
the  North  Sea  is  thronged  with  weary  travellers.  In  April  a  return  migration  occurs." 

We  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of  a  few  families  of  birds  unknown  in  Hritain,  but 
interesting  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  afford  us  another  set  of  instances  of  adaptation  to 
attain  particular  ends,  so  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  Nature.  All  the  birds  in  quotion, 
though  probably  not  related,  have  peculiarly  modified  tongues,  apparently  specially  designed 
to  aid  in  sucking  up  honey  from  flowers. 

The  first  group  for  consideration  are  the  HONEY-EATERS  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia. 
So  great  is  the  transformation  which  the  tongue  in 
these  birds  has  undergone,  that  it  forms  one  of 
the  most  elaborate  organs  of  its  kind,  sur- 
passing even  that  of  the  Humming-birds. 
A  description  of  this  organ  without 
the  aid  of  anatomical    terms  and 
diagrams    would     be     useless. 
Suffice  it  to  say  it  is  long, 
capable  of  being  thrust 
out  of  the  mouth, 
and    brush-like. 
It  is  used  to 
thrust  up 

the  tubes 
of       honey - 
bearing    flowers, 
as  well  for  the  sake 
of  the  juice  as   for  the 
insects    gathered    in    such 
situations  to  feed  on   it. 

The    best    known    of  the 
Honey-caters  is  the    Pol-:,  or   P.\kso\- 
111  kl),  of  New  Zealand,      (ilossy   black   in 
colour,    with    vivid     green    and     blue    reflec- 
[WiMatc,  y.  s.  tions,   it   is  rendered   still   more  attractive  by  a 

COAL-TITS  pajr    of  white  tufts    of   feathers    hanging   from 

t tmmm  M^U^ti^i^i^wb^j^wd  tlu'  ^ront  "PP1'1'  l'art  "'  l'K'  neck,  whilst  on  the 

back  of  the  neck  in  the  same  region  the  leathers 

are  of  a  loose  structure,  long,  and  curled  forwards.  Other  honey-eaters  are  the  \Viii  \'\:-v.\  i  5, 
Sl'X-l'.lKDS,  and  l'"l.o\\  l.k-l  I  iKKKs. 

The  \Ylin  1  -1  \  1  -.  so  called  from  a  ring  of  white  feathers  around  the  eye,  have  a  wide 
distribution,  being  found  in  Australia,  India.  Africa.  Madagascar,  and  Japan.  Besides  honey 
they  are  very  partial  to  fruit,  particularly  tigs  and  grapes,  and  al>o  capture  insects  on  the  \\ing 
after  the  fashion  of  fly-catch- 

The  Sl'N-l!lkl)N  correspond  in  the  Old  \Vorld  to  the  Humming-birds  in  tin-  New,  having, 
like  the  latter,  a  metallic  plumage,  varied  in  its  hues  and  wondrous  in  its  beauty;  but 
they  are  not  entirely  dependent  upon  this  lustre  for  their  charm,  for  much  of  their 

udour    is    gained    from    the    non-metallic    portion    of   the    plumage,    \\hichis   often   vividly 


LARKS,    TITMICE,    HONEY-EATERS,    THEIR    KINDRED         135 


coloured.  The  females  are  dull- 
coloured,  whilst  the  males  lose  their 
beauty  in  the  winter  season.  These 
birds  are  inhabitants  of  the  tropical 
regions  of  Africa,  India,  and  Australia, 
and  seem  to  revel  in  the  burning 
rays  of  the  noonday  sun. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Sun- 
birds  are  the  FLOWER-PECKERS  of 
the  Indian  and  Australian  regions,  ^ 
These  are  all  small  birds,  remark- 
able as  much  for  the  beauty  of 
their  nests  as  for  the  splendour 
of  their  plumage.  The  nests  are 
purse-like  structures,  made  of  white 
cotton-like  material,  and  suspended 
from  a  branch  instead  of,  as  usual, 
resting  on  it.  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  birds  of  the  whole  group, 
which  includes  numerous  species,  is 
the  Australian  DIAMOND-BIRD.  Of  a 
general  ashy-grey  colour,  this  species 
is  splashed  all  over  with  spots  of 
red,  yellow,  orange,  and  black,  whilst 
the  tail-coverts  are  rich  dark  red. 


Pilil,  fy  W.  F.  Piggolt~\ 


[Leighton  Buxxard 


RED-BACKED    SHRIKES 


Aho    called  Butcher-birds,  from  their  habit   of  killing   small  birds    and  mammals 
and  hanging  them  up  on  thorns 


HP* 


Phvta  bf  W.   RtiJ] 

AUSTRALIAN 


MAGPIE 


common  South  Australian  form,  kno<wn  also  as  the 
Pipiag-trovt 


CHAPTER     XVII 

SHRIKES,  THRUSHES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, 
SW  ALLOWS,  LYRE-BIRDS,  CHATTERERS, 
BROAD-BILLS,  ETC. 

THE  Shrike  Family  are  an  exceedingly  interesting 
group  of  birds,  of  world-wide  distribution  and  of 
great  diversity  of  appearance,  varying  in  size  from 
a  bird  as  small  as  a  titmouse  to  one  as  large  as  a 
thrush,  and  presenting  a  considerable  range  of  coloration, 
some  being  very  brightly,  others  dull  coloured.  From 
the  hooked  beak,  and  the  presence  of  a  notch  in  the 
tip  of  the  upper  jaw,  they  were  considered  by  the  older 
naturalists  to  be  allies  of  the  Birds  of  Prey,  a  decision 
still  further  supported  by  their  hawk-like  habit  of  capturing 
living  prey  in  the  shape  of  small  birds  and  mice ;  whilst 
the  remarkable  custom  of  impaling  their  victims,  still 
living,  on  thorns  has  earned  for  them  the  popular  name 
of  BUTCHER-BIRDS.  The  limits  of  the  family,  owing  to 
the  diversity  of  the  forms  involved,  have  not  as  yet  been 
finally  determined  by  naturalists,  some  having  included 
species  which  others  hold  have  no  place  there. 


136     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Five  species  are  commonly  included  in  the  list  of  British  birds,  although  only  two 
occur  with  any  frequency:  of  these,  the  (iUK.Vl  GKI:Y  SllKlKK  visits  Great  Hritain  every  wintei  ; 
whilst  the  smaller  RED-BACKED  SllKlKK  is  an  annual  summer  visitor  to  those  islands,  breeding, 
however,  only  in  England,  occurring  but  occasionally  in  Scotland,  and  being  almost  unknown  in 
Ireland,  where  only  one  specimen  has  ever  been  recorded. 

The  RKi>-lt.u-Kr.i>  SHRIKE,  writes  Dr.  Sharpe,  "  reminds  us  of  a  fly-catcher  in  the  way  in  which 
[it]  captures  its  food,  for  it  has  undoubtedly  favourite  perches,  on  which  it  sits,  and  to  which 
it  returns  after  the  capture  of  an  insect.  It  is  frequently  to  be  seen  on  telegraph-wires, 
where  it  keeps  a  sharp  look-out  in  every  direction,  and  a  favourite  resort  is  a  field  of  freshly 
cut  grass.  It  also  captures  a  good  many  mice  and  small  birds,  not  pursuing  them  in  the  open 
like  birds  of  prey,  but  dropping  down  on  them  suddenly.  In  the  British  Museum  is  a  very 
good  specimen  of  the  larder  of  a  red-backed  shrike,  taken  with  the  nest  of  the  bird  by  Lord 
\Valsingham  in  N'orfolk,  and  showing  the  way  in  which  the  shrike  spits  insects  and  birds 

on  thorns ;  and  the  species  has  been  known  .  .  . 
to  hang  up  birds  even  bigger  than  itself,  such 
as  blackbirds  and  thrushes,  as  well  as  tits  of 
several  kinds,  robins,  and  hedge-sparrows,  while  it 
will  also  occasionally  seize  young  partridges  and 
pheasants." 

Though  undeniably  unmusical, the  red-backed 
shrike  is  nevertheless  able  to  imitate  with 
considerable  success  the  notes  of  other  small 
birds,  decoying  them  by  this  means  within 
striking  distance — an  accomplishment  shared  also 
by  other  members  of  the  Shrike  Family.  The 
present  species  is  attractively  clothed  in  a 
plumage  varied  with  black,  grey,  rufous,  and 
chestnut-brown,  the  last  being  the  predomi- 
nating hue  of  the  upper-parts;  hence  the  name 
Red -backed  Shrike. 

The  habits  of  its  congener,  the  GKKAT  GKKY 
SllKlKK,  arc  precisely  similar.  A  caged  specimen 
which  had  become  very  tame  would  take  food 
from  its  captor's  hands.  When  a  bird  was 
given  it,  the  skull  was  invariably  broken  at  once, 
after  which,  holding  the  body  in  its  claws,  the 
shrike  would  proceed  to  tear  it  in  pieces  after  the 
fashion  of  a  hawk.  Sometimes, instead,  the  carcase 
would  be  forced  through  the  bars  of  the  cage — 
in  lieu  of  thorns — and  then  pulled  in  pieces. 

Very  different  in  appearance  from  the  members  of  the  Shrike  Family  are  a  group  of 
possibly  allied  forms  known  as  WAX-YVIV.-.  Of  pleasing  but  sober  color, ition,  they  are 
remarkable  for  certain  curious  appendages  to  the  inner  quill-feathers,  of  a  bright  sealing-wax 
red  colour,  from  which  they  derive  their  name:  similar  wax-like  appendages  occur  also,  some- 
times, on  the  tail-feathers. 

Breeding  in  the  Arctic  Circle,  wax-wings  occur  in  both  the  Old  and  \ew  Worlds,  though 
some  species  peculiar  to  the  latter  region  lack  tin-  wax-like  appendage-  characteristic  of  the 
majority  of  the  species.  These  birds  arc  erratic  in  their  movements,  and  large  bands  occasionally 
visit  the  British  Islands  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  the  eastern  counties  being  usually  tin- 
most  favoured  spots;  but  on  the  occasion  of  one  <>f  these  immigrations,  in  the  winter  of  1872, 
many  were  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  North  of  London.  1  Miring  the  summer  they  feed 
on  insects,  but  in  autumn  and  winter  on  berries  and  fruit.  At  this  time  they  become  very  fat 


Fhtli  h  If.  F.  FiifHt]  [Ltitl<i.n  Bux.x*rd 

REED-WARBLER 

A   common    bird,    arriving    in    sifril,    aid    /raving    again    in 
September 


P/lo/o  bj  J.  T.  Ntwmaii 


SONG-THRUSH 

resident  species^  sometimes  called  the 

137 


138     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF   THE    WORLD 


HUH  tj  Sthiliitit  Phut,  (.«. 

YOUNG    THRUSH 

Till  f  holograph  ikmvi  tht  mud-lined  neil 

the  spring  migrants,  remaining  to  nest, 
and  leaving  again  in  the  autumn.  Some, 
as  the  B1..U  K-CAP,  WHITE  THROAT,  CHIFF- 
CHAFF,  GARDEN-,  WILLOW-,  and  WOOD- 
w  A  RULERS,  frequent  woods,  hedgerows, 
and  gardens ;  whilst  others,  as  the  SEDGE- 
and  REED-WARBLERS,  are  found  only 
near  water  affording  sufficient  shelter  in 
the  shape  of  reed-banks  or  osier-planta- 
tions. 

The  BLACK-CAP  and  GARDEX-WARB- 
LER  rank  as  songsters  of  no  mean  talent, 
being  held  second  only  to  the  nightingale. 
As  if  by  common  consent,  the  two  former 
never  clash,  so  that  where  black-caps  arc 
common  there  are  few  garden-warblers,  and 
vice  versA. 

Most  of  these  birds  build  a  typical 
cup-shaped  nest  of  dried  grasses,  lined 
with  finer  materials,  and  placed  near  the 
ground;  but  that  of  the  I\i  I  i>-\\ ARI:I  I:K 
is  a  most  beautiful  structure,  the  dried 
grass  of  which  it  is  made  bring  woven 
an mnd  some  three  or  four  reed-stems, 
making  it  seem  as  if  the  latter  had,  in 
growing  up,  pierced  the  sides  of  th 


and  are  then,  captured  and  sold  in  large  numbers 
for  food  in  the  Russian  markets,  and  occasionally 
are  sent  over  to  London. 

Passing  over  a  small  group  of  comparatively 
uninteresting  American  birds  known  as  "  Green- 
lets,"  we  come  to  the  WARBLERS,  a  group  which 
constitutes  one  of  the  largest  families  of  birds  ,,f 
the  Old  World.  The  species  included  in  this 
family  vary  greatly  in  their  characters,  so  that 
it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  give  diagnostic  char- 
acters, whereby  they  may  be  readily  distinguished 
from  the  Fly-catchers  on  the  one  hand  or  the 
Thrushes  on  the  other.  The  Thrushes,  houever, 
as  a  group,  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
Warblers  by  the  circumstance  that  in  the  former 
the  young  have  a  distinctive  spotted  plumage, 
differing  from  that  of  the  adults,  while  the 
young  of  the  Warblers  are  not  so  marked, 
their  plumage  differing  but  little  from  that  of 
their  parents. 

More  than  twenty  species  of  warblers  are 
included  amongst  British  birds.  Although  some 
of  them  are  but  rare  and  accidental  visitors  to 
Britain,  others  are  amongst  the  commonest  of 


J.  T    \.i.-n. 


B  I.  A  C  K  B I  R  D 


Tkl  mall  amj  frmalt  art  juilr  jiprrtxt  ene  from  ar.,,<krr,  anj  in  tliii  rtiprd 
iflrfrtm  iki  Tkrutkn,  im  vititt  tit  uxti  art  a/He 


THRUSHES    AND    THEIR    ALLIES 


139 


in  their  course.  The  cup-shaped  hollow  is  very  deep,  so  that 
when  the  supporting  reeds  are  bowed  low  in  the  breeze  the 
eggs  rest  perfectly  safe. 

We  must  pass  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  Thrush  Tribe, 
which,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  are  very  closely  allied  to' the 
Warblers. 

Birds  like  the  COMMON  THRUSH  and  the  BLACKBIRD  are  so 
common  and  so  well  known  that  they  scarcely  need  comment 
here.  The  same  perhaps  is  true  of  many  other  members  of 
this  group  not  popularly  associated  with  the  Thrush  Tribe  ;  such 
are  the  RED-BREAST,  or  ROBIN  RED-BREAST,  as  it  is  more  generally 
called,  and  the  NIGHTINGALE.  Few  birds  have  inspired  so  many 
writers  as  the  nightingale ;  it  even  holds  a  place  in  classical 
mythology.  Professor  Newton  gives  us  one  variant  of  a  very 
common  but  pretty  story :  "  Procne  and  Philomela  were  the 
daughters  of  Pandion,  King  of  Attica,  who  in  return  for  warlike 
aid  rendered  him  by  Tereus,  King  of  Daulis  in  Thrace,  gave 
him  the  first-named  in  marriage.  Tereus,  however,  being 
enamoured  of  her  sister,  feigned  that  his  wife  was  dead,  and 
induced  Philomela  to  take  her  place.  On  her  discovering  the 
truth,  he  cut  out  her  tongue  to  hinder  her  from  revealing  his 
deceit ;  but  she  depicted  her  sad  story  on  a  robe  which  she 
sent  to  Procne,  and  the  two  sisters  then  contrived  a  horrible 
revenge  for  the  infidelity  of  Tereus  by  killing  and  serving  to 
him  at  table  his  son  Itys.  Thereupon  the  gods  interposed, 
changing  Tereus  into  a  hoopoe,  Procne  into  a  swallow, 
and  Philomela  into  a  nightingale,  while  Itys  was  restored  to 

life  as  a 


Photo  by  A.  S.  Rudland  £r>  Sons 

NIGHTINGALE 

The  sweetest  and  most  renoivned  of  all  the  songsters 


Plnti  ky  W.  F.  Piggat 

ROBIN 

The  young  robin  ivears  a  distinct  livery, 
quite  different  from  that  of  its  parents 

pheasant, 

and  Pandion  (who  had  died  of  grief  at 
his  daughters'  dishonour)  as  a  bird  of  prey 
[the  osprey]." 

A  not  infrequent  error  with  regard 
to  the  red-breast  may  be  pointed  out 
here.  Many  people  seem  to  suppose  that 
the  female  is  less  brilliantly  coloured  than 
her  mate.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  is  not 
so  ;  what  are  generally  regarded  as  females 
of  this  species  are  the  dull,  spotted  young, 
which,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out, 
assume  this  peculiar  livery  throughout  the 
tribe. 

No  less  common  in  Britain,  during 
the  summer  months  at  least,  are  the  WHEAT- 
EARS,  STONE-CHATS,  WHIN-CHATS,  and 
RED-STARTS.  Small  and  prettily  coloured 
species,  these  are  all  insect-caters,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  wheat-ears,  lay  blue 
eggs,  deposited  in  somewhat  coarsely  con- 
structed nests,  placed  on  -or  near  the 
ground  ;  or  in  holes  in  ruins,  trees,  or  walls, 
in  the  case  of  the  red-starts ;  or  in  bur' 


I4«      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


HHII  hf  G.  fVamtufh  tf,t,t,r  &•  S.n] 

STONE-CHAT 

^  rradrnt  and  generally  distribute  J  bird 


rows  or  under  ledges  of  rock,  as  among  the 
wheat-ears,  which  lay  white  eggs. 

The  bird  commonly  known  as  the 
HEDGE-SPARROW  is  a  close  ally  of  the  Thrush 
Family,  having  nothing  to  do  with  the 
sparrows  proper  —  which  are  finches  —  as  its 
name  would  imply. 

Another  nearly  related  form  is  the 
DIPPER,  or  WATER-OUZEL.  By  no  means 
brilliantly  coloured,  it  is  nevertheless  an 
exceedingly  interesting  bird,  and  one  m-ver 
met  with  away  from  mountain  streams.  The 
group  has  a  wide  distribution,  occurring 
in  suitable  localities  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  America,  and 
extending  from  Colombia  to  Peru  and 
Tucuman.  Squat  in  form,  with  rounded 
wings  and  short  tail,  the  ouzel  seeks  the 
greater  part  of  its  food  on  the  bottom 
of  swiftly  running  streams.  It  is  every- 
where, writes  Dr.  Sharpe  of  the  commoner  of 
the  two  British  species,  a  shy  and  watchful 
bird,  and,  except  in  the  breeding-season, 
appears  to  be  solitary.  By  patient  watching 
near  the  dipper's  haunts,  however,  it  is 
possible  to  observe  the  bird  scudding  over 
the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  rapid  flight 

and  a  vigorous  beating  of  the  wings,  something  like  that  of  a  kingfisher,  until  it  alights 
on  a  rock  or  large  stone  in  the  middle  of  the  stream.  Its  white  breast  then  stands  out 
in  bold  relief,  and,  after  pausing  for  a  moment,  the  bird  commences  to  edge  to  the  side 
of  the  rock,  and  either  walks  deliberately  into  the  water,  or  disappears  suddenly  beneath  the 
surface,  seeking  its  food  at  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  in  the  shape  of  larva.-,  caddis-worms, 
water-beetles,  and  small  snails. 

The  WRENS  are  probably  near  allies  of  the  Dippers.  The  family  includes  a  number  of 
species  of  small  birds,  most  largely  represented  in  the  New  World,  but  distributed  widely  over 
the  Old  World  also.  Two  occur  in  the  British  Islands:  of  these,  one,  the  COMMON  WREN,  is 
found  throughout  Europe,  and  occurs  also  in  Northern  Africa.  Asia  Minor,  and  North  Palestine; 
whilst  the  other,  the  ST.  KlLDA  WREN,  is  only  found  on  the  island  from  which  it  takes 
its  name. 

Considerations  of  space  compel  us  to  pass  over  three  or  four  families,  of  comparatively 
little  interest  to  any  save  the  scientific  ornithologist,  in  favour  of  the  FLY-CATCHERS  and 
SWALLOWS. 

The  former,  in  that  the  young  are  spotted,  appear  to  evince  some  affinity  to  the  Thrush 
Tribe,  but  they  have  broad  and  flatter  bills  than  the  latter,  whilst  the  mouth  is  surrounded 
by  more  or  less  conspicuous  bristles.  They  arc  entirely  ( >ld  World  forms,  having  their 
stronghold  in  Africa. 

Three  species  of  fly-catcher  occur  in  England,  though  only  one.  the  COMMON  or  SPOTTED 
Fl.y-C.VTCIir.R,  usually  breeds  in  Great  Britain,  coming  late  in  the  spring  from  Africa.  As  its 
name  implies,  it  feeds  upon  small  insects,  capturing  them  on  the  wing  by  sudden  sal: 
and  returning  immediately  after  to  some  perch,  generally  a  garden-fence,  or  the  bare  bough  of  a 
tree.  As  a  rule  the  prey  is  caught  with  a  sudden  dart,  but  sometimes  only  after  a  prolonged 
flight,  when  the  bird  will  double  and  turn,  as  the  necessity  arises,  with  great  skill.  Its  nest, 


SWALLOWS    AND    MARTINS 


141 


.  4r  J,  T.  Ntuiman 

A    PAIR    OF    WRENS 

Known  nearly  everywhere  as  the  "  Kitty  "  or  "  Jenny  "  FFren 


made    of  dry    grass   and    moss, 

lined  with  horse-hair  and  covered 

externally  with  spider-webs  and 

lichens,    is     usually     placed     in 

some  sheltered  position,  such  as 

a  crevice  in  the  bark  of  a  tree 

or  in  the  creepers  covering  the 

trellis-work    of    a    house  ;     and 

owing  to  the  skilful  way  in  which 

it   is    covered   externally,  so  as 

to  resemble  its  surroundings,  is 

difficult  to  find. 

The   S  \v  A  L  I,  o  \v  s    and 

MARTINS  constitute  an  exceed- 

ingly well-defined  group  of  birds, 

and    one    which    holds    a    con- 

spicuously   high    place     in    the 

regard    of  mankind,    finding    a 

welcome   everywhere  on  account  of  the  great  benefits  they  confer  by  the   removal  of  insect- 

pests   in    the    shape    of  the    smaller    gnats   and    flies.      These,  were   they  not    kept   in   check 

by   the    Swallow  Tribe,  would    render  most    parts    of  the   world    uninhabitable.     Rarely   seen 

upon  the  ground,  save  when  procuring  mud  for  the  construction  of  their  nests,  the  birds  of 

this  group  are  all  peculiarly  strong  fliers, 
turning  and  twisting  with  the  greatest 
speed  and  precision.  All  have  very  short 
beaks  and  wide  mouths,  long  wings  and 
tails,  and  small  and  weak  feet. 

A  large  number  build  their  nests  of 
mud,  collected  in  small  pellets  and  held 
together  by  the  secretion  of  the  salivary 
glands.  These  nests  are  commonly  more 
or  less  cup-shaped,  and'  fastened  under 
the  eaves  of  dwelling-houses  or  other 
buildings,  or  placed  on  a  convenient 
beam  or  other  ledge.  The  RED-RUMPED 
SWALLOWS  and  FAIRY  MARTINS  —  species 
enjoying  an  enormous  distribution, 
being  found  in  India,  Africa,  America, 
and  Australia  —  build  very  large  flask- 
shaped  nests,  having  the  entrance  pro- 
duced into  a  funnel  often  eight  or 
nine  inches  in  length.  Others,  like  the 
SAND-MARTIN,  excavate  long  tunnels,  ter- 
minating in  larger  chambers,  in  the  faces 
of  sand-banks  —  a  performance  which  must 
certainly  be  regarded  as  wonderful,  when 
one  realises  the  feeble  tools  with  which 
the  task  of  excavating  has  to  be  per- 

formed.     Some  species  utilise   the   holes 
made  b     other  birdSi  in  one  ;es   this 

""         .        ,/•,  ,       •  i  • 

,      .  .  f     L-  L  ,  hole  being  itself  bored  within  the  burrow 

in   winter   -wrens   have   a   custom   c,J    seeking   some   hole   or  other   convenient 

shelter  and  huddling  together  in  *mail  parties  for  the  sake  ofn<a>mth  of  tile  VJSCacha. 

IO 


''"•'"  "'  ••""°'"-'i'  ph">-  c°- 

COMMON   WRENS     WITH   NEST  BUILT   IN 


142       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

All  are  more  or  less  migratory  in  their  habits,  some  covering  enormous  distances  in 
journeying  to  and  fro  between  their  winter  retreats  and  their  summer  breeding-places.  The 
COMMON  SWALLOW  and  HOUSE-MARTIN,  for  example,  leave  the  shores  of  Africa  early  in  the 
spring,  and  distribute  themselves  over  Europe,  thousands  visiting  the  British  Islands.  After 
rearing  in  their  respective  breeding- places  from  two  to  three  broods,  they  return  with  their 
offspring  before  the  rigours  of  winter  set  in  to  the  African  Continent.  The  routes  and 

destinations  of  the  swallow 
are  now  well  known ;  but  as 
much  cannot  be  said  for  the 
house-martin,  whose  winter 
quarters  are  as  yet  enshrouded 
in  mystery.  That  they  must 
be  somewherein  Africa  is  all 
that  can  at  present  be  said. 

Three     species    of    the 
Swallow  Tribe  visit  Kngland 
regularly  every  year,  and  re- 
_  „  main  to  breed.    These  are  the 

ftittt  bf  y.   7.   Nrurmam 

YOUNG   SWALLOWS  COMMON  or  CHIMNEY-SWAL- 

For  kundrtdt  of  ytar,  it  ha,  bttn  rtgardtd  a,  most  unlucky  to  till  a  fwallno  LOW,  and  the  HOUSE-MARTW 

just  referred  to,  and  the  little 

SAND-MARTIN.  In  the  two  first  mentioned  the  upper-parts  are  of  a  dark  steel-blue  colour 
with  a  metallic  gloss,  but  they  are,  nevertheless,  easily  distinguished  one  from  another, —  since 
the  swallow  has  a  deeply  forked  tail,  and  a  bright  chestnut  patch  on  the  throit,  with  a 
similarly  coloured  band  across  the  forehead  ;  whilst  the  martin  lacks  the  chestnut  markings,  and  is 
pure  white  beneath,  with  a  large  white  patch  on  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  a  le>s  markedly 
forked  •  tail.  Furthermore,  the  legs  of  the  martin  are  feathered  down  to  the  claws,  whilst 
the  feet  of  the  swallow  are  bare.  The  sand-martin  is  a  little  greyish-brown  bird,  with  white 
under-parts.  It  is  the  earliest  of  the  Swallow  Tribe  to  arrive  in  Britain,  and  the  first  to  depart 

LYRE-BIRDS  AND  SCRUB-BIRDS 

At  the  beginning  of  the  account  of  the  Perching-birds  it  was  stated  that  the  group  waf 
divided  into  two  sections,  and  that  each  of  these  was  further  sub  divided  into  two.  With  thi 
Swallows  the  first  sub-division  of  the  first  section  ended  i  the  second  we  are  to  consider  now  io 
the  very  singular  LYRE-BIRDS  and  SCRUB-BIRDS  of  Australia. 

Rendered  conspicuous  on  account  of  the  remarkable  lyrate  tail,  from  which  the  name  is 
derived,  the  LYRE-BIRDS,  on  closer  acquaintance,  prove  to  be  exceedingly  interesting  forms, 
though  materials  for  a  really  complete  biography  of  the  three  known  species  a»-e  not  yet 
available.  The  males,  it  seems,  are  skilled  mimics,  reproducing  the  songs  of  other  birds  with 
great  fidelity,  this  being  especially  true  of  the  species  known  as  I'KINCK  ALIIKRT'S  LYKK-UIRD. 
During  the  courting-season  the  males  construct  hillocks,  to  which  they  resort  to  display  their 
very  beautiful  and  graceful  tails,  elevating  them  over  the  head,  and  drooping  the  wings  after 
the  fashion  of  a  peacock,  accompanying  this  display  with  certain  spasmodic  pecking  and 
scratching  actions.  They  are  solitary  birds,  more  than  a  pair  never  being  seen  together,  and 
even  these  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  approach,  stratagem  always  being  necessary.  Hut  a 
single  egg  is  laid,  which  has  the  appearance  of  being  smeared  with  ink  ;  whilst  the  young 
bird  differs  from  that  of  all  other  pcrching-birds  in  the  thickness  of  its  downy  covering  and 
the  great  length  of  time  in  which  it  remains  in  the  nest  The  nest,  made  of  sticks,  moss, 
and  fibres  skilfully  interwoven,  and  lined  inside  with  the  leaf  of  a  tree-fern  which  resembles 
horse-hair,  is  a  large  domed  structure,  with  a  single  aperture  serving  as  an  entrance. 

Lyre-birds  are  essentially  ground-dwellers,  feeding  upon  insects,  especially  beetles  and 
snails,  and  keeping  to  the  wilder  regions  of  the  country. 


CHATTERERS 


143 


The  SCRUB-BIRD  is  an  extremely  interesting  form,  scientifically.  Only  the  males  are  known 
at  the  present  time,  and  these  are  dull-coloured  birds  of  the  size  of  a  thrush.  Of  the  female, 
eggs,  and  nest,  we  as  yet  know  absolutely  nothing. 

CHATTERERS,  ANT-THRUSHES,  BROAD-BILLS,  ETC. 

The  second  major  division  of  the  Perching-birds  embraces  a  few  forms  of  considerable 
interest. 

The  group  of  CHATTERERS  includes  several  remarkable  forms  of  very  diverse  coloration, 
many  representing  the  most  gorgeous  of  all  South  American  birds. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  UMBRELLA-BIRD.  This  bird  is  funereal  in  appearance, 
being  clothed  in  a  plumage  of  deep  black,  with  the  head  surmounted  by  a  large,  drooping, 
flat-topped  crest,  resembling  in  shape  the  familiar  crest  of  certain  varieties  of  the  canary,  whilst 
from  the  throat  hangs  a  long  lappet  of  feathers  reaching  nearly  down  to  the  feet.  The  female 
is  duller  than  her  mate,  and  lacks  the  peculiar  plumes.  The  umbrella-bird  is  a  forest-dwelling 


PhM  by  IV.  F.  Pigeitl 

SAND-MARTINS 

This  photograph  shoivs  a  portion  of  a  sand  hankt  pierced -with  the  tunnel-like  nests  made  by  these  feeble  builders 

species,  confined  to  the  Upper  Amazons,  and  dwelling  in  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  where 
it  finds  ample  sustenance  in  wild  fruits.  But  few  naturalists  have  ever  seen  it  in  a  wild  state. 

Equally  wonderful  are  the  BELL-BIRDS,  so  called  on  account  of  their  note,  which  bears  an 
extraordinary  resemblance  to  the  sound  made  by  a  blacksmith  upon  an  anvil,  though  it  has 
often  been  likened  to  the  tolling  of  a  bell.  Four  species  are  known,  in  three  of  which  the 
males  have  a  pure  white  plumage,  with  much  naked,  vividly  coloured  skin  on  the  face.  One 
species  has  a  curious  pendulous  process  hanging  from  the  forehead,  thinly  covered  with  feathers. 
By  some  this  is  said  to  be  capable  of  erection  during  periods  of  excitement.  Like  the  umbrella- 
bird,  these  are  forest-dwelling  species. 

For  brilliancy  of  plumage  amongst  the  Chatterers,  the  palm  must  be  given  to  the  COCKS- 
OF-THE-ROCK,  in  the  males,  of  which  orange-red  predominates,  whilst  the  general  effect  is 
heightened  by  crests  and  curiously  curled  and  frayed  feathers  growing  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  back.  The  males  indulge  in  remarkable  love-displays,  the  performances  being  held  in 
some  open  space,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  females.  One  at  a  time  each  male  appears  to 
go  through  a  kind  of  dance,  accompanying  his  peculiar  steps  and  hops  with  much  swaying  of 
the  head  and  extending  of  the  wings.  When  tired,  the  performer  gives  a  signal  which  is  under- 
stood by  his  fellows,  and  retires  from  the  ring,  his  place  being  immediately  taken  by  another. 


144      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  nesting  habits  of  the  Chatterers 
vary  greatly, — some  building  nests  of  mud 
and  twigs,  which  they  fasten  on  projections 
of  rock  in  damp  caves;  others  simply  lining 
holes  in  trees  with  dry  grass.  Some  build 
a  cup-shaped  nest  of  lichens,  others  a  simple 
platform  of  sticks,  whilst  some  of  the  THU  K- 
BILLED  CHATTEKKRS  hang  large  nests  of 
leaves,  plant-stalks,  and  wool  from  l<>\v 
branches,  the  entrance  to  the  nest  being 
from  a  hole  in  the  side.  The  eggs  vary 
in  number  among  the  different  species 
from  two  to  four,  and  in  colour  may  be 
white,  chocolate,  pale  salmon-coloured,  or 
greenish  blue,  and  are  for  the  most  part 
spotted. 

Closely  allied   to  the  Cocks-of-the-mck 
are  the  MANAKINS,  for  the  most  part  small 
and   thick-set   birds,  and  in    many  in  stun 
brilliantly  coloured  —  at  least  in  the  case  <>f 
the  males.     Some  seventy  species  are  known, 


[  Mtihturnt 


VICTORIAN    LYRE-BIRD 


Lyre-iirJst  which  are  a/fo  known  to  the  colonial  at  "  Pheaianti,"  art 
great  m  mict 

all  of  which  are  confined  to  South  America.  They 
must  be  sought  for,  as  a  rule,  in  the  forests  or 
thick  undergrowth  of  marshy  places. 

The  Manakin  Family  contains  several  species 
of  considerable  interest,  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
modifications  which  certain  of  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  males  have  undergone.  In  some  species 
what  are  known  as  the  secondary  quill-feathers 
are  peculiarly  twisted,  and  have  the  shafts  much 
thickened.  With  these  modified  feathers  the 
birds  are  enabled,  probably  by  clapping  the 
wings  and  bringing  the  thickened  feathers 
violently  together,  to  make  a  sharp  sound,  which 
has  been  likened  to  the  crack  of  a  whip.  Other 
species  have  the  quill-feathers  of  the  hand  —  the 
primaries,  as  they  are  called  —  similarly  thickened, 
and  they  probably  are  also  used  to  produce 
sounds. 

One  species  is  known  as  the   BAII.\I><>K,  or 

DANCER,  on  account  of  a  very  remarkable  habit 
which  the  males  have  of  dancing.  Two  m.il< •-, 
choosing  some  secluded  spot,  select  a  bare  twig, 


PH.,-  b,  W.  Sjvl//'-A'/ni.  f   X.  1. 

TAIL   OF  AUSTRALIAN    LYRE-BIRD 

Thll  trnamenul  tall  II  worn  only  />)•  the  malt 


ANT-THRUSHES,    PLANT-CUTTERS,    WOOD-HEWERS          145 


and,  taking  tip  a  position  about  a  foot  and  a  half  apart,  alternately  jump  about  two  feet  in  the 
air,  and  alight  again  on  exactly  the  same  spot  from  which  they  sprang.  With  the  regularity 
of  clockwork  one  bird  jumps  up  the  instant  the  other  alights,  each  bird  performing  a  musical 
accompaniment  to  the  tune  of  "  to-le-do  —  to-le-do  —  to-le-do,"  uttering  the  syllable  "  to  "  as  he 
crouches  to  spring,  "  le  "  while  in  the  air,  and  "  do  "  as  he  alights ;  and  this  performance  appears 
to  be  kept  up  till  the  birds  are  exhausted. 

Some  of  the  manakins  are  very  beautifully  coloured.  One  species,  for  example,  is  black, 
with  a  blue  mantle  and  a  crimson  crest;  another,  black,  with  orange-coloured  cheeks  and  breast 
and  similarly  coloured  band  round  the  neck,  green  rump,  and  yellow  abdomen.  The  females  are 
generally  duller  in  coloration. 

The  ANT-THRUSHES,  or  PITTAS,  are  long-legged,  short-tailed  birds,  of  brilliant  coloration, 
having  their  headquarters  in  the  Malay  Archipelago ;  but  the  family  is  represented  in  India, 
Australia,  and  West  Africa. 

These  birds  are  very  shy  and  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  approach.  One 
species,  the  large  GROUND-THRUSH,  is  de- 
scribed by  Wallace  as  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  birds  of  the  East.  Velvety 
black  above,  relieved  by  pure  white,  the 
shoulders  are  azure-blue  and  the  belly 
a  vivid  crimson.  The  nest  recalls,  in 
the  plan  of  its  architecture,  that  of  the 
Oven-birds,  being  more  or  less  globular 
in  form,  and  having  a  lateral  entrance ; 
it  is  composed  of  twigs,  roots,  bark, 
moss,  leaves,  and  grass,  and  is  frequently 
cemented  with  earth.  The  eggs  are 
usually  spotted,  and  have  a  creamy-white 
ground-colour:  the  spots  maybe  brown, 
reddish  grey,  or  purplish  black. 

The  curious  PLANT-CUTTERS  of  the 
temperate  regions  of  South  America  are 
nearly  related  to  the  Chatterers,  though 
at  one  time  it  was  believed  they  were 
allied  to  the  True  Finches.  Constituting 
but  a  small  family,  the  plant-cutters  are 
remarkable  for  their  strangely  serrated 

beaks,    the    cutting-edges    of    which     are  &  called  from  ils  wonjerfai/v  c/ear,  &//_/„•&  mu 

armed  with  a  series  of  fine  saw-like  teeth. 
This  beak  is  used  in  cutting  down  plants ;  and  as  these  birds  appear  to  cut  down  a  great  number 
in  sheer  wantonness,  they  are  much  disliked  in  the  neighbourhood  of  gardens  and  plantations. 

Plant-cutters  are  not  conspicuous  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  and  have  a  harsh  and 
grating  voice. 

The  WOOD-HEWERS  constitute  a  group  of  over  200  species,  all  of  which  are  South  American. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  small  and  dull-coloured  birds,  but  nevertheless  of  considerable 
interest  on  account  of  their  nest-building  habits.  The  most  remarkable  members  of  the  family 
in  this  respect  are  three  species  of  OVEN-BIRDS.  These  construct  a  massive  nest  of  mud, 
bearing  a  more  or  less  fanciful  resemblance  to  a  baker's  oven ;  hence  the  name  Oven-bird. 
Roughly  globular  in  shape,  its  walls  are  of  great  thickness,  and  to  prevent  cracking  hair  and 
grass-fibres  are  intermixed  with  the  mud ;  the  interior  is  gained  through  a  small  hole  on 
one  side  of  the  nest,  which  leads  into  a  passage  terminating  in  a  chamber  containing  the 
eggs,  which  are  laid  upon  a  bed  of  grass.  Strangely  enough,  the  bird  seeks  the  most  exposed 


f  halt  t)  A.  S.  Rudland  &  Sail 

BELL-BIRD 

So  called  from  its  wonderfully  clear. 


146       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


situations,  placing  its  nest  on  branches,  in  the  forks  of  trees,  on  posts,  rocks,  or  house-tops. 
Another  species,  known  to  the  Spaniards  as  the  CASARITA,  or  LITTLE  HOUSE-BUILDER,  builds  its 
nest  at  the  bottom  of  a  narrow  cylindrical  hole,  which  is  said  to  extend  horizontally  under- 
ground for  nearly  six  feet.  Other  species  build  nests  of  sticks  and  twigs  or  of  grass,  which 
are  divided  into  chambers  after  the  fashion  of  the  mud  nest  of  the  oven-bird,  the  inner 
chamber  being  lined  with  wool  and  feathers. 

The  variation  in  the  form,  habits,  and  coloration  of  these  birds  is  very  great,  some 
recalling  the  Woodpeckers  and  Tree-creepers,  others  the  Titmice. 

The  family  of  the  TYRANT  FLY-CATCHERS,  though  numbering  some  400  species,  is  less 
interesting,  or  rather  contains  fewer  peculiar  forms,  than  the  Manakin  Family.  The  tyrant 
fly-catchers  are  American  birds,  and  represent  the  fly-catchers  of  the  Old  World.  One  of  the 
best  known  is  the  KINO-BIRD,  which  is  renowned  rather  for  its  pugnacious  disposition  than  for 
beauty  of  plumage. 

The  CRESTED  TYRANT-BIRD  has  a  curious  habit  of  lining  its  nest  with  the  cast-off  skins  of 

snakes,  a  habit  which  has  caused  a  great 
deal  of  discomfort  both  to  juvenile  as  will 
as  adult  egg-collectors,  who,  recognising 
the  skin  by  the  touch,  have  hurriedly  with- 
drawn the  hand,  lest  the  owner  of  the 
cast-off  coat  should  be  in  the  vicinity. 

All  the  tyrant-birds  are  active  and 
restless  in  their  habits,  and  frequent  marshy 
districts,  sitting  alone,  perched  on  the  dead 
branches  of  trees  or  bushes,  whence  they 
dart  forth  like  the  Old  World  fly-catchers 
on  their  prey.  Some  species,  however, 
frequent  bare  plains;  others,  also  ground- 
dwellers,  associate  occasionally  in  flocks. 

Though     the    prey,    which    consists 
chiefly  of  insects,  is,  as  a  rule,  captured 
on  the  wing,  it  is  not  invariably  so.     One 
species,    for    example,  pounces  down   on 
crawling  beetles,  grasps  them  in  its  claws, 
and  eats  them  on  the  ground.     Some  other 
species  eat  mice, young  birds,  snakes,  frogs, 
fishes,    spiders,    and    worms,    the    larger 
victims  being  beaten  on  a  branch  to  kill  them.     One  or  two  species  will  eat  seeds  and  berries. 
The  nest  is  often  domed,  and  skilfully  felted  with  moss,  lichens,  and  spider-webs. 
The  BROAD-BILLS  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  final  sub-division   of  the   Ferching- 
birds.     After  the    brilliant  coloration,  the  next  most  striking  feature  is  the  great  breadth  of 
the   bill.     Their   range    is   very   limited,   extending   from    the    lower  spurs    of  the  Himalaya, 
through  Burma  and  Siam,  to  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Java.     They  seek  the  seclusion  of  for 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  exhibiting  great  partiality  for  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  feeding  on  worms  and  insects,  many  of  the  Litter  being  captured  on  the  wing. 

The  nest  of  the  broad-bill  is  a  large  and  no;  very  neat  structure,  oval  in  shape,  with  an 
entrance  near  the  top,  which  is  often  protected  with  an  overhanging  roof.  It  is  generally 
suspended  from  a  low  branch  or  plants  near  tin-  water,  and  made  of  twigs,  roots,  and  leaves, 
and  lined  with  finer  materials.  l;rom  three  to  five  eggs  are  laid. 

With  these  birds,  probably  the  most  primitive  of  the  1'erching-birds,  this  section  ends. 
Many  forms  have  inevitably  been  crowded  out,  whilst  others  have  been  but  briefly  noticed; 
nevertheless,  all  the  really  important  groups  have  been  more  or  less  completely  described,  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  well  illustrated. 


ftiti  *f  A.  S.  Rudlind  &•  Sm 

COCK-OF-THE-ROCK 

Tfu  :  ck-sf-tke-roft  it  a  South  American  birJt  of  gorgeous  coloration 


BOOK  III.       REPTILES   AND    AMPHIBIANS 

\ 

BY    W.    SAVILLE-KENT,    F.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 


!_'  ''      '     ' 
"fePTI  LE  S 


CHAPTER     I 


CROCODILES  AND   ALLlGArORS 


THE  Reptile  Class,  as  defined  by  modern  scientific  limitations,  includes  among  the  living 
animals  of  the  world  the  several  groups  of  the  Crocodiles,  the  Tortoises  and  Turtles,  the 
Tuatera.  the  Lizards,  and  the  Snakes.     In  the  popular  mind  the  Frogs  and  Toads,  and 
the  Newts  and  Salamanders,  are  often  held  to  belong  to  the  same  main  section ;    but  these, 
as  hereafter  shown,  claim,  as  Amphibians,  an  independent  position  of  equivalent  rank  and  value. 
In  bygone  geological  ages  the  Reptile  Class  embraced  a  considerably  larger  number  of  groups ; 
some  of  the  members,  such  as  the  extinct  Dinosaurs,  comprised  titanic  monsters  from  60  to  80 
feet  in  length.     The  Crocodiles  and  Alligators  of  the  present  day  are  the  only  living  reptiles 
which  in  any  way  approach  the  extinct    Saurians    in  their    dimensions,  or  assist    us  in  some 
small  measure  to  realise  their  unwieldy  forms  and  bulk. 

The  members  of  the  Crocodile  Order,  which,  in  addition  to  the  Alligators,  includes  also 
the  Caimans  and  so-called  Gavials  or  Garials,  agree  with  one  another  in  the  more  or  less 
ponderous  lizard-like 
shape  of  their  body, 
supported  on  well- 
developed  but  short 
and  comparatively 
weak  legs,  in  their 
special  adaptation  to 
an  amphibious  exist- 
ence, carnivorous 
habits,  and  restriction 
ijo  tropical  and  sub- 
ijropical  climates. 

Among  the  salient 
Characters  of  the 
CROCODILE,  as  the 
representative  of  its 
tribe,  which  specially 
adapt  it  for  its  aquatic 
habits,  the  long,  power- 
ful tail  is  strongly 
compressed  and  thus 
fitted  for  use  as  an  YOUNG  NILE  CROCODILE 

Ofgcin      OT      propulsion,  Th'n  species  was  worshipped  with  divine  honours  and  mummified  after  death  by  the  ancient 

147 


148       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


YOUNG    BROAD-SNOUTED    CROCODILE 
A  native  of  ffeit  Africa,  remarkable  far  the  extreme  shortness  an  d  great  breadth  of  in  tinzlt 


and  the  feet  are  more  or 
less  webbed.  The  most  strik- 
ing of  its  structural  adapta- 
tions is,  however,  associated 
with  the  formation  of  tilt- 
creature's  skull.  The  manner 
in  which  a  crocodile  or  alli- 
gator contrives  to  breathe  or  to 
save  itself  from  asphyxiation, 
when  opening  and  shutting 
its  mouth  under  water.  .1^ 
it  may  often  be  observed  t<> 
do  in  the  Regent's  Park 
Menagerie,  is  a  common 
source  of  wonderment  to  the 
onlooker.  This  scemin-ly 
difficult  feat  is  compassed  by 
virtue  of  the  posterior  nos- 
trils, or  breathing-pas-. i 
being  set  so  far  back  in  the 
skull,  and  being  so  completely 
cut  off  from  the  mouth-cavity 
by  specially  developed  bones  of  the  palate,  that  they  have  no  intercommunication  with 
the  mouth.  It  is  this  mechanism  which  enables  a  crocodile  to  seize  and  hold  an  animal 
underneath  the  water  between  its  open  jaws  until  it  is  drowned.  Special  valves  at  the 
back  of  the  mouth  prevent  any  water  running  down  the  creature's  throat,  while  it  is  able 
itself  to  breathe  unrestrainedly  by  allowing  just  the  tip  of  its  elongated  snout,  with  the  anterior 
nostril-apertures,  to  remain  above  the  water's  surface.  In  many  species  a  conspicuous  knob- 
like  bony  excrescence  is  developed  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout,  by  which  the  nostril-openings 
are  raised  turret-wise  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  eyes  also  being  usually  elevated 
above  the  level  of  the 
creature's  head,  the  crocodile 
is  able  to  approach  its  floating 
or  bank-side  prey  practically 
unperceived,  its  huge  body, 
limbs,  and  even  the  head, 
with  the  exception  of  the 
nose  and  eyes,  being  totally 
submerged. 

Although  capable  of 
moving  with  great  activity 
in  the  water,  crocodiles  and 
their  allies  are  usually  ac- 
counted sluggish  and  slow 
movers  on  the  land.  Seen 
basking  in  the  sun,  as  is 
their  wont,  by  the  hour 
together  on  some  sand-bank, 
or  creeping  lazily  thereon 

among  their  fellows,  such  a  A  DEAD  CROCODILE 

conclusion    is   natural.      The 

A  man-eating  individual.       Tnn  particular  animal  aji  tuit  been   tliot.       1 «  nattvtf    i>. 
Celerity,  however,  with    Which  tattfrounJ  give  a  focJ  idea  of  in  UM  —  little  leu  tkan  20  feet  lout 


CROCODILES    AND    ALLIGATORS 


149 


even  a  huge  25-footer,  as  witnessed  by  the  writer  in  the  Norman  River,  North  Queensland, 
will  make  tracks  for  and  hurl  itself  into  the  water,  if  disturbed  during  its  midday  siesta  by 
the  near  impact  of  a  rifle-bullet,  is  a  revelation.  Crocodiles,  moreover,  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  slit-like  contour  of  the  eye-pupil,  as  shown  by  daylight,  are  to  a  large  extent 
nocturnal,  displaying  their  greatest  activity,  and  being  in  the  habit  of  traveling  long  distances 
along  and  away  from  the  river-banks  in  search  of  food,  or  in  connection  with  their  migratory 
or  mating  instincts,  under  the  cover  of  darkness. 

Of  all  living  animals  the  crocodile  and  its  allies  are  probably  equipped  most  efficiently 
for  both  defence  and  aggression.  The  thick,  horny  shields,  quadrangular  on  the  back,  tail,  and 
under-surface,  and  adapted  in  shape  and  size  to  cover  the  head,  limbs,  and  sides,  constitute 
an  almost  impenetrable  cuirass.  As  weapons  of  offence  the  formidable  array  of  trenchant  teeth, 
with  which  the  powerful  jaws  are  armed,  have  not  alone  to  be  reckoned  with  by  the  victim 
assailed.  The  crocodile's  limbs  and  claws  are  relatively  weak,  and  incapable  of  aggressive 


X 


mat  m 


Phtta  bj  Mr.  IP.   Rau] 


[Philadelphia 


A    CROCODILE 

Note  the  massive  character  of  the  tail,  a  "weapon  luhcrsiunh  the  creature  can  disable  a  horse  or  an  oxt  or  siveep  smaller  prey  into  the  'water 

mischief;  but  in  the  long,  compressed,  muscular  tail  the  reptile  possesses  a  terribly  effective 
weapon,  wherewith,  with  one  swift,  unexpected  side-stroke,  it  will  sweep  a  smaller  animal  into 
the  water,  or  deal  a  blow  of  sufficient  power  to  fell  or  disable  a  man  or  bullock.  Thus 
well-nigh  invulnerable,  and  cognisant  of  its  marvellous  power  of  jaw  and  tail,  a  full-grown 
crocodile  will  not  hesitate  to  try  conclusions  with  even  such  puissant  adversaries  as  the  bear, 
the  'tiger,  and  other  large  carnivora,  when  they  approach  the  river's  brink  to  drink.  Not 
infrequently,  too,  the  crocodile  comes  off  the  victor  in  these  contests;  while,  as  sometimes 
happens,  both  of  the  well-matched  foes  are  found  dead  side  by  side  at  the  water's  edge.  The 
dread  in  which  crocodiles  arc  held  by  the  natives  of  tropical  countries,  and  the  heavy  toll  they 
levy  upon  the  riverside  population,  and  more  especially  the  women-folk  in  their  accustomed 
avocations  of  water-carrying  or  laundry  work,  are  too  familiar  to  need  dissertation.  Hence  it 
is  that  in  every  country,  excepting  those  particular  locations  where  the  creature  is  a  subject  of 
misguided  veneration  or  fetish  worship,  it  may  be  said  that  every  man's  hand  is  against  them, 
and  the  enmity  most  cordially  reciprocated. 

All  the  members  of  the  Crocodile  Family  propagate  by  egg-production.     The  eggs  are 


I5«     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


relatively  small  in  size,  those  of  the  largest  species  not  exceeding  that  of  a  goose  in 
dimensions.  In  shape  they  are  more  or  less  symmetrically  ovate,  and  encased  with  a  haul, 
white  shell.  In  the  case  of  the  crocodile,  the  female  selects  a  suitable  dry  sand-bank  near 
the  river's  edge,  in  which  it  excavates  a  hole  of  about  2  feet  deep,  and,  having  deposited 
from  twenty  to  sixty  eggs  therein,  mounts  guard  over  them,  sleeping  on  top  of  the  nest  by 
day,  until  the  young  are  hatched.  With  the  alligator,  the  site  chosen  for  the  nest  is  more 
usually  among  bushes  or  reeds  at  some  distance  from  the  water,  and  the  eggs,  which  may 
be  laid  to  the  number  of  over  100,  are  covered  over  with  leaves  and  vegetable  debris,  \vln»c 
decomposition  engenders  the  heat  required  for  their  successful  incubation.  In  both  instances 
the  parent  jealously  guards  the  nest  and  repels  all  intruders  until  the  eggs  are  hatched,  and 
ultimately  conducts  the  young  ones  to  the  water,  where  they  soon  learn  to  shift  for  themselves. 
Numbers  of  them,  nevertheless,  in  their  young  and  weak  state,  fall  victims  to  vultures,  hawks, 
ichneumons,  and  all  manner  of  birds  and  beasts  of  prey.  From  their  birth  the  little  saurians 
are  most  vicious  and  irascible  in  disposition,  hissing  and  snapping  at  or  laying  hold  with  bull-dog 
tenacity  of  a  finger  or  other  seizable  object  that  may  be  held  towards  them.  From  their 
earliest  days  also  they  are  eminently  aggressive  and  carnivorous.  Contenting  themselves  at 
first  with  flies  and  other  insects,  they  speedily  extend  their  attentions  to  frogs,  lizards,  fish,  or 

any  small  animals  which  frequent 
the  marshes  and  river-banks ;  and 
finally,  with  their  concurrently  in- 
creased appetites  and  dimensions, 
requisition  such  larger  prey  a? 
sheep,  goats,  deer,  horses,  and,  as 
before  mentioned,  even  the  human 
species,  if  they  can  steal  a  march 
on  them  unawares.  Crocodiles 
are  provided  with  relatively  small 
millets,  and  are  necessarily  in- 
capable of  swallowing  any  prey 
whole  which  is  of  large  dimensions. 

M./.»,  if.  SMV.:!..XM,F.Z.S.-I  iM,:f.n-.,.s.*  Accordingly  any  big  quarry  which 

A  QUEENSLAND  CROCODILE  is  seized  and  dragged  into  the  river 

Tk,  <f*c,mt,  refirrtJ,,  ,n  ,k,  an«A,,e  ,„  fag,  jjo  is  disposed  of  piecemeal ,  the  reptile 

rending    the  carcase  in    fragments 
with  the  aid  of  its  terrible  teeth  and  side-wrenches  of  its  ponderous  body. 

Of  crocodiles  proper,  as  distinguished  from  alligators,  there  are  some  dozen  known  species. 
From  their  last-named  near  allies  they  are  distinguished  by  the  entire  absence  of  the 
supplementary  bony  armature  which  in  most  alligators  underlies  the  outer  horny  cuirass  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  body.  A  more  essential  distinction  is  associated  with  the  character 
of  the  teeth.  The  upper  and  lower  teeth  of  the  crocodile  interlock,  and  the  fourth  lower 
canine-like  tooth  is  received  into  a  notch  in  the  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  is  consequently 
more  or  less  visible  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  In  the  alligators,  on  the  other  hand,  this 
bigger  tusk-like  tooth  fits  into  a  pit-like  excavation  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  is  invisible  when 
the  mouth  is  shut. 

The  TRI/E  CROCODILES  are  found  in  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa.  Asia,  Australasia,  and 
Central  America.  The  largest  is  undoubtedly  the  estuarine  species,  ranging  from  the  eastern 
shores  of  India,  through  the  Malay  region,  to  North  and  K.ist  Australia,  New  (iuinea.  and 
the  Fiji  Islands.  This  wide  ran^e  is  a  natural  concomitant  of  their  brackish-  and  salt-water 
proclivities.  Individuals  of  the  species  are,  in  fact,  not  infrequently  met  with  tloating  on  the 
sea  at  some  considerable  distance  from  the  land.  An  example  of  this  r-tuarine  species  has 
been  recorded  which  measured  no  less  than  33  feet,  while  a  length  of  20  feet  and  over  is  by 
no  means  of  uncommon  occurrence. 


PA«»  bf  J.  W.  Mr  Lilian 

CROCODILE,    WELL    ILLUSTRATING    THE    CHARACTER    OF    THE    DENTITION 

The  lower  tusk-like  teeth  Jit  into  notches  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  are  -viable  when  the  mouth  is  closed.      In  the  alligator  these  teeth  ft  into  pitt 
in  the  upper  jaiu ,  and  are  hidden  from  -vieiv  under  the  like  conditions 


152      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


11 /it  fhitt.  Ct. 


CROCODILES    AND    ALLIGATORS,    WITH    YOUNG 

Korwiihstanding  tktir  frcvcrhially  irascible,  disfodtioni,  these  reptiles,  of  all  ages  and  dimen- 
sions, Herd  together  on  the  mott  amiable  lermi 


The  method  adopted  in 
Queensland  and  North 
Australia  for  capturing  these 
destructive  monsters  is  that 
of  a  running  noose,  so  at- 
tached to  a  suitably  flexible 
mangrove  tree  growing  in  the 
vicinity  of  its  nocturnal  runs. 
as  to  constitute  a  gigantic 
spring-trap.  A  dead  carcase 
or  other  suitable  bait  is  added 
to  lure  the  animal  to  its 
doom.  The  crocodiles  thus 
caught  are  alive  and  uninjured. 
and  can  be  dispatched  or 
reserved  for  menagerie  exhi- 
bition. A  somewhat  amusing 
incident  attended  the  trans- 
port of  a  "  reprieved  "  captive 
by  steamship  from  Cairns  to 
Brisbane,  Queensland,  a  few- 
years  since.  In  the  dead  of 

night,  when  all  but  the  watch  and  engineer  had  retired  to  rest  (they  have  to  anchor  and  lay-to 
at  night  in  the  Great  Harrier  Reef  channels),  the  saurian  managed  to  free  himself  from  his 
bonds,  and  started  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  around  the  decks.  Arriving  at  the  stoke-hold,  he 
either  incontinently  stumbled  into  it,  or  descended  of  malice  prepense,  sniffing  the  chance  of 
a  supper  or  a  good  joke  at  the  engineer's  expense.  Anyway,  the  engineer  was  aroused  from  his 
peaceful  dozings  with  the  impression  that  the  last  day  of  reckoning  had  arrived,  and,  rushing 
up  the  hatchway,  awakened  the  whole  ship's  strength  with  his  frantic  outcries. 

The  NILE  CROCODILE,  the  most  familiar  form  in  European  menageries,  and  once  abundant 
throughout  Egypt  to  the  Nile's  delta,  has  now  retired  to  the  upper  reaches  of  that  great 
river.  It  never  attains  to  the  dimensions  of  the  estuarine  form.  Hy  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
as  is  well  known,  this  species 
was  pampered  andworshipped 
with  divine  honours  while 
living,  and  after  death  em- 
balmed and  preserved  in  the 
catacombs. 

Other  noteworthy  croco- 
diles, of  which  space  will  allow 
only  of  the  mention  of  their 
names,  are  the  AMERICAN  or 
ORIMK  uCk<  HI  HUM:, and  the 

I.r  .\(.->\nf  I  Mi     Cl<i  H  iiIUl.E 

of  West  Africa,  whichdistantly 
approach  to  the  Lo.\<;- 
sviri  i  n  CiAViAi.  or  GARIAI. 
of  India,  in  which  the  snout 
is  elongated  in  a  beak-like 
manner,  and  armed  with  close 
rows  of  long,  recurved  teeth, 
specially  adapted  for  its  ex- 


.  if    Kltl'l    D      tJf/.r,,  [Ph,l.,J,l,>,,, 

A    CROCODILE    FROM    SOUTHERN    UNITED    STATES 

Tie  teeih  of  crocodiles,  at  torn  fared  with  ihou  of  alligamrs,  are  much  ten  uniform  In  it 

and  character 


CROCODILES    AND    ALLIGATORS 


153 


1 


cltisively  fish-eating  propensities. 
Full-grown  examples  of  the  gavial 
may  attain  to  a  length  of  20  feet. 

The  TYPICAL  or  MISSISSIPPI 
ALLIGATOR  is, as  its  name  denotes, 
a  North  American  form,  having 
the  modified  dental  and  other 
structural  details  previously  re- 
ferred to,  but  otherwise  in  size  and 
its  aggressively  destructive  habits 
nearly  corresponding  with  the 
Oriental  crocodile.  A  second 
species  of  alligator  is  found  in 
China. 

In  the  tropical  South  American 
rivers  the  place  of  the  alligator 
is  occupied  by  the  CAIMANS,  some 
of  which  attain  to  huge  pro- 
portions, and  are  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  the  greater 
development  of  the  bony  armature 
of  both  their  back  and  under- 
surface,  and  by  certain  essential, 
but  to  the  lay  reader  obscure, 
modifications  of  the  skull.  An  ex- 
ample of  the  GREAT  CAIMAN  once 
did  duty  as  a  riding-horse  to  the 
naturalist  Waterton,  as  all  those 
familiar  with  his  book  of  travels 
will  remember. 

The  habits  of  the  caiman 
differ  somewhat  locally.  From  the  main  stream  of  the  Lower  Amazon  they  are  in  the  habit 
of  migrating  in  the  dry  season  to  the  inland  pools  and  flooded  forests.  In  the  middle  districts 
of  the  same  river,  where  the  drought  is  excessive  and  protracted,  the  caimans  are  addicted  to 
burying  themselves  in  the  mud  till  the  rains  return;  while  in  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
Amazon,  where  the  droughts  are  not  prolonged,  the  caimans  are  perennially  present.  The 
eggs  of  these  reptiles  are  much  esteemed  for  food  by  the  natives  of  Dutch  Guiana. 


Photo  by  SJolaitic  Pbotn.  Co. 

MISSISSIPPI    AND    CHINESE    ALLIGATORS 

The  Chinese  species,  'which  is  the  smaller  of  the  tiuo,  feeds  mainly  upon  fish 


CHAPTER     II 

TORTOISES  AND    TURTLES 

THE  order  of  the  Chelonians,  including  the  Tortoises,  Turtles,  and  Terrapins,  with  their 
allies,  constitutes  one  of  the  most  distinct  and  readily  defined  groups  of  the  Reptile 
Class.  The  more  or  less  complete  bony  shell,  or  carapace,  which  encases  the  body,  and 
into  which  both  head  and  limbs  can  in  many  cases  be  completely  retracted,  separates  these 
reptiles  very  widely  from  the  other  orders.  In  some  respects  certain  details  of  the  skull- 
structure  assimilate  them  to  the  Crocodiles ;  but  here  again  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  the 
rows  of  formidable  teeth,  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  being  sharply  pointed,  covered  with  horn, 
and  thus  converted  into  a  trenchant  beak.  The  two  leading  groups  of  the  Tortoises  and  the 
Turtles  are  distinctly  separated,  by  the  respective  conformation  of  their  limbs,  for  a  terrestrial 
or  aquatic  existence.  The  Tortoises  have  normal  walking-legs,  with  toes  and,  in  most  instances, 
claws,  fitting  them  for  walking  on  the  land  or  burrowing  into  the  earth.  In  the  True  Turtles 


154       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Hu 


these  limbs  take  the  form  of  flattened  paddles,  and  in  no 
instance  are  more  than  two  of  the  toes  provided  with  claws. 
The  TORTOISKS  are  sub-divided  by  zoologists  into 
some  six  or  eight  subordinate  groups  or  families,  for 
the  most  part  distinguished  by  the  respective  modifi- 
cations of  their  protective  shells.  This  shell  in  all 
tortoises  and  turtles  consists  of  two  essential  elements  — 
the  upper  or  back  casing,  known  as  the  "  carapace," 
and  the  under  one,  or  so-called  "  plastron,"  which 
covers  the  ventral  surface.  In  some  forms  these  two 
elements  are  completely  welded  into  one  another,  forming 
a  continuous  box-like  shell  ;  in  others  they  are  more  or 
less  separate;  while  in  yet  another  scries  the  lower 
shell  is  rudimentary.  These  distinctions  have  been 
found  to  constitute  a  convenient  basis  for  classification. 

In  the  TRUE  LAND-TORTOISES,  which  invite  first 
attention,  the  upper  and  lower  shells  are  completely 
united  in  a  box-like  form,  and  the  neck,  bent  in  tin. 
form  of  the  letter  S,  can  be  completely  retracted  within 
it.  The  limbs  are  club-shaped,  covered  with  horny 
scales  or  tubercles,  and  adapted  for  walking,  tin- 
being  unwebbed,  and  provided  with  strong  claw-like  nails. 
Pre-eminent  among  this  typical  terrestrial  scries 
come  the  huge  GIANT  or  ELEPHANT-TORTOISES,  formerly 
abundant,  as  their  fossil  remains  indicate,  in  Southern 
Europe,  India,  and  North  and  South  America,  and  now 
represented  only  in  the  isolated  oceanic  islands  of  Aldabra, 
<>tt  Madagascar,  the  Seychelles,  and  the  Galapagos  groups. 
Even  within  historic  times  they  were  very  abundant  in 

the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Rodrigues;    but  their  huge  size  and  lethargic  habits,  combined 

with   their   esculent  qualities,   have  brought     bout  their  extermination.     Those   remaining  in 

the   islands   mentioned  are  now  so    reduced   in  numbers   that   there  is  a  possibility  of  their 

becoming  extinct  at  an  early  date,  and    this  notwithstanding   the  strenuous  endeavours    that 

are  being  made   to  save  them.     A   large   percentage  of 

the  small  residue  of  these  giant   Chelonians   have   been 

transported  from  their  island  homes  and  presented  to  the 

London  Zoological  Gardens,  where  they  are  now  comfortably 

housed. 

An  instructive  idea  of  the  aspect  and  relative  dimen- 

sions of  these  giant  tortoises  may  be  obtained  by  a  refer- 

ence to  page  vii  of  the  First   Volume,  in  which  one  of 

these  Chelonians  is  shown  to  be  equal  in  size  and  strength 

to   carrying  a  human    rider.      It    is    recorded    that   these 

reptiles  were  so  abundant  in  the  island  of  Rodrigues  in 

1691  that  one  might  count  as  many  as  3.000  of  them  in 

a  single  flock,  and  walk  for  over    100  paces  upon  their 

backs.      All    of  these    giant  .tortoises,  as   obtained    from 

separate   island   groups,  or  islets  of  the    groups,   exhibit 

characteristic    differences,    indicating    the    length  of  time 

they    have    been     separated     from    one    another.      The 

age    to  which   these    giant   tortois,  ,    attain    is    altogether 

phenomenal.      One    example   at    Port    Louis,    Mauritius, 


ASIATIC    TORTOISES 

A  tortoi$f9   like  a   turtle^   turned  cvtr  on  itt  back, 
represents  one  tf  the  most  kelplest  of  living  animals 


«.,.».,.•.  .v  .«.,  ......  j  [,„,,„„ 

KURoi'KAN   TORTOI 
4nrn,i,e',,te/i,crc<iraf>a[t,roi!tiitutciaf>crt. 

'tl'  *""'<  "•*'"""  '*'  """""'•  ""  '"""'-'  '"?' 

Jtf  lAfltf   /•»  tmttmfnl  u'tat*ert  or   ii-ntm 


TORTOISES    AND    TURTLES 


155 


originally  brought  from  the  Seychelles,  is  definitely  known  to  have  lived  for  over  130  years 
from  the  date  of  its  transportation.  It  is  stated  to  have  been  of  large  size  when  imported ; 
and  as  these  animals  are  notoriously  slow  growers,  another  couple  of  centuries  may  be  safely 
added  to  its  life-span.  The  Galapagos  Islands  down  to  recent  times  have  produced  the  greater 
number  of  species  of  these  tortoises,  the  carapace  of  the  largest  of  these  not  infrequently 
measuring  as  much  as  4  feet  in  direct  length,  and  the  weight  of  such  an  animal  being 
over  400  Ibs. 

Highly  interesting  details  concerning  the  Galapagos  giant  tortoises  and  their  habits  are 
contained  in  Darwin's  "  Voyage  of  the  Beagle."  At  the  time  of  that  illustrious  naturalist's 
visit  they  were  still  very  abundant  in  the  islands.  He  remarked  that  they  abounded  in  both 
the  higher  and  damper  and  the  lower  and  arid  districts,  but  gave  preference  to  the  former. 


Photo  by  S.   G.  Pajrti  tV   Son,  Aylttbury,  hi  ftrmii'ion  it  [fit  Hon.   Walttr  Roths. hud 

ELEPHANT-TORTOISES    FROM    THE    GALAPAGOS    ISLANDS 

Several  species  are  shown  in  this  photograph 

The  old  males  were  invariably  the  largest,  growing  to  such  a  size  that  they  required  six  or 
eight  men  to  lift  them,  and  yielded  as  much  as  200  Ibs.  of  good,  highly  nutritious  meat.  On 
some  of  the  islands  there  was  no  water ;  and  in  these  cases,  as  also  when  they  occurred  in  the 
dry  and  arid  lowlands,  they  were  observed  to  feed  chiefly  on  the  succulent  cactuses.  When 
water  was  plentiful,  the  tortoises  exhibited  a  great  fondness  for  it,  drinking  large  quantities 
and  wallowing  in  the  mud.  In  the  larger  islands,  where  wells  and  springs  existed  in  the 
higher  and  damper  portions,  regular  well-beaten  paths  radiated  in  every  direction,  indicating 
the  routes,  like  sheep-tracks,  regularly  followed  by  the  tortoises  to  and  from  the  water-holes. 
It  was  these  tracks  which  betrayed  their  presence  and  led  to  their  first  discovery  by  the  older 
Spanish  navigators.  When  travelling  long  distances  to  the  watering-places,  it  is  recorded  that 
they  march  night  and  day,  pursuing  the  "  even  tenor  of  their  way"  at  the  rate  of  sixty  yards 
an  hour  —  one  yard  per  minute,  or  four  miles  per  day!  During  the  breeding-season  the  larger 
males  indulge  in  hoarse  roarings  or  bellowings  that  can  be  heard  for  a  considerable  distance. 
TV  female  deposits  her  eggs  either  in  the  sand,  where  this  is  plentiful,  covering  them  up 


156       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


again,  or,  where  the  ground  is  rocky,  drops  them  indiscriminately  in  any  crevice  or  depression 
encountered.  The  eggs  are  white,  spherical,  and  hard-shelled,  as  in  all  tortoises,  and  somewhat 
exceed  those  of  a  hen  in  bulk. 

The  very  antithesis  of  the  giant  land-tortoises  of  the  Galapagos  Islands  is  the  small  and 
familiar  GRECIAN  TORTOISE,  frequently  exposed  for  sale  on  hand-barrows  in  the  London  streets. 
and  acquired  by  the  unsophisticated  suburban  resident  as  a  quaint  but  not  altogether 
estimable  garden  pet.  Like  the  majority  of  tortoises,  this  is  a  vegetarian,  and  with  epicurean 
tastes  that  will  guide  it  instinctively  to  select  your  choicest  lettuces  and  the  gems  of  your 
horticultural  triumphs  for  the  delectation  of  its  fastidious  appetite.  The  Grecian  tortoise  ran  ly 
exceeds  5.}  inches  in  length,  and  is  abundant  throughout  South-eastern  Kuropc,  Sicily,  Italy, 
and  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  extending  thence  to  Syria.  In  Algeria  an  almost  identical 
tortoise  occurs  which  grows  to  the  greater  length  of  9  inches;  while  Greece  produces  yet  a 
third  form,  the  so-called  MARGINED  TORTOISE,  which  attains  the  greater  length  of  1 1  inches. 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  colour  of  the  carapace  usually  being  black,  with  a  small  spot  of 
yellow  on  each  shield-like  plate.  All  three  of  the  foregoing  species  are  collectively  imported 
by  shiploads  for  sale  in  England,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  fate  befalls 

them.  In  Greece  and  Sicily  they  are 
regularly  placed  on  the  market  as  an 
article  of  food.  When  acclimatised  in 
Kngland,  and  even  in  their  wanner  native- 
country,  these  Grecian  tortoises  bury 
themselves  in  the  earth  and  hibernate 
during  the  cold  winter  months. 

Next  to  the  typical  Land-tint, 
the  so-called  HlMil-.D  T<  >k  I « >ISK-  demand 
brief  notice.  The  several  members  nf 
this  little  group  are  deni/ens  of  tropical 
Africa,  and  notable  for  the  circumstance 
that  the  hinder  portion  of  their  carapace- 
is  united  with  the  anterior  one  by  a 
movable  lig.imentous  hinge.  As  a  re>ult 
of  this  peculiarity  the  animal,  \\hen 
retracted  within  its  shell,  can  entirely 
close  up  the  hinder  aperture.  None  of 
these  forms  exceed  a  length  of  9  inches. 
In  another  group,  distinguished  by  the  title  of  BOX-TOKTOISKS,  a  ligamcntous  hinge  is 
developed  across  the  centre  of  the  lower  shell,  or  plastron,  which,  being  freely  movable  with 
relation  to  the  upper  shell,  enables  the  animal,  when  retracted.  t<>  completely  close  up  both 
the  anterior  and  posterior  carapace  apertures.  The  box  tortoisi-s  are  natives  ot  the  South- 
eastern United  States  and  Mexico,  and,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  structural  peculiarity, 
are  distinguished  by  the  high  or  vaulted  contour  of  their  carapace.  In  some  the  toes  are 
slightly  webbed,  and  their  habits  are  mainly  carnivorous,  indicating  affinity  with  the  flesh- 
eating  and  essentially  aquatic  Terrapins. 

Between  the  two,  however,  have  been  intercalated  a  little  group,  known  as  the  P»\n- 
T' >KTolsr..s,  one  species  of  which  is  found  in  Southern  Kurope,  and  a  nearly  allied  one  in 
North  America.  These  pond-tortoise >  are  distinguished  by  the  smooth  and  depicted  lonn 
of  the  carapace;  the  toe-,  are  fully  webbed,  fitting  them  for  an  aquatic  life;  whil.  a 
ligamentous  hinge,  separating  the  anterior  and  posterior  mojetie^  of  the  plastron,  enable- 
them  to  cover  in  and  protect  their  retracted  head  and  limbs,  after  the  manner  ot  the  Mox- 
tortoises.  The  carapace  of  the  Kuropean  pond-tortoise  d»e>  not  exceed  7.]  inches  in  len.;'.h. 
and  is  usually  dark  brown  or  black,  ornamented  \\ith  yellow  dots  «>r  radiating  streaks.  1  his 
•  ies  inhabits  both  ponds  and  running  water,  and  during  the  daytime  creeps  out  on  the  banks. 


/•*.(.  h  S.  C. 


ill,  Ihn.   U'thir  Rtthl.hil 


V  St»,  4>l,lk*r,,  if  firmi 

ELEPHANT-TORTOISE 

Nme  ike  imall  axe  of  the  head  -uiitli  relation  la  the  huge  car  a  fact 


r 


i  h  *•  <•'•  ?*>*•  &  S<">  •rf/'«"«".  *J  firmillim  'fill,  H»n.  tCahir  Ktt 

GIANT    OR    ELEPHANT-TORTOISES    FROM    THE   GALAPAGOS    ISLANDS 

The  ilipHant-likc  character  of  their  limbs,  -whence  they  derive  their  name,  is  well  txemflifed  in  these  examflu 
II  157 


158       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    O  F    THE    WORLD 


like  the  Crocodiles,  to  bask  in  the  sun.  As  with  the  Crocodiles,  however,  the  daytime  do.  - 
not  represent  the  period  of  its  greatest  activity,  this  being  during  the  night.  The  pond- 
tortoises  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table  in  the  countries  where  they  are  indigenous. 

The  TRl'E  TKKKAI-INS  are  all  tortoises  of  essentially  aquatic  habits,  differing,  however,  from 
the  water-frequenting  Pond-tortoises,  last  referred  to,  in  that  they  have  no  ligamentous  hinge 
providing  for  the  hermetical  closure  of  the  carapace  apertures.  The  carapace  and  plastron, 
moreover,  are  firmly  united  by  bone,  so  that  the  two  form  conjointly  a  rigid,  continuous  shell, 

as  in  that  of  the  typical  Land- 
tortoises.  The  terrapins  are  widely 
distributed,  being  found  in  \nrth 
America,  Japan,  China,  the  IVr-ian 
Gulf,  Spain,  and  North-west  .\li 
Terrapin  ranks  highly  as  a  table 
delicacy  in  the  United  States.  The 
real  DIAMOND-UU  KI.II  species,  how- 
ever, is  now  becoming  very  scarce, 
the  supply  not  being  equal  to  the 
demand,  and  many  inferior  varieties 
being  substituted  in  its  place.  The 
"fishing"  for  these  terrapins  is 
mainly  prosecuted  during  the  autumn 
months,  when  the  reptiles  become 
dormant,  and  are  easily  discovered 
and  secured  by  probing  the  mud  with 
sticks.  The  female  terrapin,  or  "  cow  " 
as  it  is  designated,  is  considered  the 
greater  delicacy,  the  eggs  to  the 
number  of  twenty  or  thirty,  usually 
found  inside  its  body,  being  the  i/r 


GIANT   TORTOISE 

Tke  ftartt  tortoises^  like  ihe  relatively  diminutive   European  varieties^  are  essen- 
tially herbivorous 


rigueur     garnishing    of     the    dainty 

dish.  The  diamond-terrapin  rarely  exceeds  a  length  of  7  inches:  but  some  of  the  inferior 
varieties,  or  "  Sliders,"  as  they  are  termed,  are  of  much  larger  dimensions,  and  may  weigh 
as  much  as  4  Ibs. 

From  an  aesthetic  standpoint  the  PAINTKD  TKKKAHV  undoubtedly  bears  the  palm.  Its 
smooth,  depressed  carapace  is  not  more  than  6  inches  long,  and  its  ground-colour  is  usually 
a  dark  olive-green,  yellow  lines  bordering  its  component  central  shields;  the  small  marginal 
shields  are  sometimes  almost  crimson  with  black  markings,  and  the  "bridge"  uniting  the 
carapace  and  plastron  exhibits  the  same  brilliant  coloration.  The  soft  skin  of  the  head,  neck, 
and  other  exposed  parts  have  yellow  and  red  bands  on  a  brown  or  blackish  ground-colour. 
This  beautiful  little  terrapin,  which  is  a  special  favourite  for  aquariums,  is  a  native  of  K. intern 
North  America. 

Passing  the  small  and  not  peculiarly  conspicuous  group  of  the  AMERICAN  MUD-TERRA1 
we  arrive  at  the  very  distinctly  differentiated  family  of  the  S\\rriKs,  S\  AITIM.-I  i  ']<  i  i.i>,  or 
ALLIGATOR-TERRAPINS,  as  they  are  variously  called.     These   likewise  are  exclusively  confined 
in   their  present-day  distribution  to    the    New  World,  though   in    former   ages    allied 
inhabited    Kuropc.     The  alligator-terrapins   are   characterised    by   the    relatively   small    si/e   nt" 
the  carapace,  within  which  the  animal  is  unable  to    completely   retract    its  head   and   limb-,  as 
in  the  preceding    types.     The   head   is  relatively   large,   and   armed   with   a   formidable  hooked 
beak;    while  the  tail   greatly  exceeds  in  relative   length    that  of  any  of  the   ordinary  tortoi 
or  terrapins,  and   is  scaly  and  crested   somewhat   like  that  of  a  crocodile  along  its  upper  ridge, 
and  has  horny  plates  on  the  under-surface.     Their  popular  name,  has,  in  fact,  been  conferred 
upon  these   Chelonians  on  the  strength  of   their   presenting   the  aspect    to  no  inconsiderable 


TORTOISES    AND    TURTLES 


159 


extent  of  an  alligator's  body,  to  which  the  carapace  of  an  ordinary  terrapin  has  been  united. 
The  common  alligator-terrapin,  or  snapping-turtle,  is  among  aquatic  Chelonians  an  animal  of 
considerable  size.  The  carapace  alone  maybe  as  much  or  more  than  2O  inches  long,  and  to 
this  have  to  be  added  the  thick  head  and  neck  and  elongated  tail,  which,  taken  together,  are 
of  almost  similar  dimensions. 

A  second  closely  related  member  of  this  family,  known  by  the  name  of  TEMMINCK'S  SNAPPER, 
attains  to  yet  longer  proportions,  and  is  the  largest  known  river-tortoise.  The  carapace  in 
this  species  may  measure  over  2  feet  in  length,  and  has  three  strongly  marked  longitudinal 
ridges.  The  head  is  relatively  larger  and  the  tail  somewhat  shorter  than  in  the  preceding 
species.  It  is  a  denizen  of  the  southern  districts  of  the  United  States,  being  met  with  in 
Texas,  Florida,  and  as  far  north  as  the  Missouri. 

The  habits  of  the  two  species  are  stated  to  be  identical.  Both  of  them  frequent  the 
rivers  and  swamps  of  the  areas  indicated,  preferring  the  waters  that  have  a  muddy  bottom, 
and  in  some  localities  occurring  in  vast  numbers.  As  a  rule  they  prefer  lying  in  deep  water 
near  the  centre  of  the  river  or  swamp  they  inhabit,  but  they  also  occasionally  ascend  to 
the  surface  and  float  in  midstream  with  outstretched  necks.  Like  other  water-tortoises,  the}' 
come  on  land  to  find  suitable  locations  for  depositing  their  eggs.  The  name  of  Snappers, 
commonly  applied  to  these  tortoises,  bears  reference  to  their  inveterate  habit  of  snapping 
and  biting  viciously  at  everything  placed  within  their  reach.  Even  from  the  egg  the  young 
of  Temminck's  species  is  wont  to  display  this  trait.  The  animals  are  somewhat  esteemed  for 
food,  and  are  consequently  caught  for  the  market.  They  will  take  almost  any  bait,  but 
manifest  a  predilection  for  fish.  Considerable  caution  has  necessarily  to  be  exercised  in 
dealing  with  them  in  the  boats,  and  it  is  a  common  custom  to  decapitate  them  immediately 
they  are  hauled  on  board,  otherwise  they  arc  capable  of  inflicting  the  most  terrible  wounds 
with  their  powerful  cutting  beaks  on  the  persons  of  all  or  any  who  may  remain  within  their 
reach.  Bathing  in  waters  tenanted  by  the  pugnacious  and  distinctly  aggressive  snappers  is 
a  risky  proceeding,  and  many  cases  of  serious  injuries  that  have  happened  to  incautious 
adventurers  in  this  direction  have  been  recorded. 

The  food  of  both  the  alligator  and  Temminck's  snapper  consists  mainly  of  fish,  and  where 
common  these  tortoises  must  be  ranked  among  the  most  potent  agencies  in  denuding  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  their  finny  denizens.  Not  content  with  fish,  the  larger  examples  have  been  known 
to  drag  under  water  and 
devour  such  large  water- 
fowl as  ducks,  and  even 
geese.  It  is  stated  that 
the  snappers  exhibit  a 
surprising  amount  of 
agility  in  the  water,  and 
swim  after  and  capture 
the  fish  on  which  they 
feed.  Such  a  feat  seems 
scarcely  credible  of  a 
bulky  adult  individual, 
while,  moreover,  it  is 
provided  with  a  remark- 
able and  effective  adapta- 
tion for  taking  its  prey 
by  stratagem.  A  very 
fine  example  of  Tem- 
minck's snapper  was  for  """  *'  **•'*""  rh°"  c°- 
many  years  confined  in  A  GIANT  TORTOISE  WITH  A  COMMON  TORTOISE  ON  ITS  BAC1C 

a     tnnk     in      the     Reptile-  Illustrating  their  comparative  liimensions 


160       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


house  in  the  Regent's  Park  Zoological  Gardens.  It  usually  lay  prone  at  the  bottom  of 
its  tank,  giving  little  or  no  signs  of  life  throughout  the  day,  but  was  wont  to  display 
more  activity  and  to  move  about  its  tank  at  night.  At  times,  when  read)-  for  a  fresh 
food-supply,  it  was  observed  that  it  would  lie  motionless  as  a  stone,  as  usual,  but  with  its 
mouth  open  to  its  widest  gape.  This  attitude  it  would  maintain  for  several  hours  together. 
The  singularity  of  this  action  was  that  the  gaping  jaws  displayed  to  view  two  elongate 
worm-like  structures,  which  sprang  close  to  one  another  from  the  floor  of  the  mouth  just 
within  its  entrance.  These  worm-like  appendages  were  continually  writhing  to  and  fro,  ami 
presented  in  both  aspect  and  movements  a  most  remarkable  resemblance  to  actual  living 
worms.  With  this  naturally  provided  decoy  for  fish  there  can  be  no  need  for  the  snapper  t«> 

exhaust  its  energies  in  the  .strenuous 
pursuit  of  its  quarry.  To  make  the 
delusion  complete,  the  head,  neck, 
and  chin  of  Temminck's  sn.ippcr  are 
decorated  with  small  lobtilar  or  leaf- 
like  membranous  appendages  resem- 
bling sponges  or  aquatic  vegetation. 
The  solid  grey-brown  triangular  head 
of  the  animal  itself  might  easily  be 
mistaken  for  a  piece  of  rock,  and 
thus  decorated  with  seemingly 
natural  growths  the  unwary  fish  come 
browsing  along  it,  rush  upon  the 
wriggling  worms  at  the  entrance  of 
the  cavernous  chamber,  and  are  lost. 
A  photograph  of  this  interesting 
Chelonian  is  reproduced  «>n  page  560, 
which  depicts  it  with  its  mouth  open, 
and  indicates  both  the  position  and 
the  presence  of  the  worm-like  decoy- 
appendages. 

There  are  several  water-tortoises 
presenting  a  considerable  external 
resemblance  to  the  forms  already 
noticed  which  belong  to  distinct 
family  groups.  Thus  the  MAI  \\IAIA 
T<>KTMlsK  of  Northern  Hrazil  has.it 
first  sight,  except  for  its  short  tail 
and  nose-like  proboscis,  much  in  com- 

carabact   for   tkt  •    ,     •!•  i  >  i-- 

,- .  mon  with  Lemmmck  s  snapper,   rim- 

rtlraclimi  of  ikt  kead  and  limti 

briated  and    foliaceous    membranous 

outgrowths  are  developed  on  the  head  and  neck  to  a  much  more  luxuriant  degree,  and 
it  would  be  interesting  to  ascertain  if  it  possesses  similar  decoy-appendages  inside  the  mouth. 
The  so-called  SNAKI:-NMKI  i>  WATER-TORTOISES  of  South  America,  and  the  I.H\.;-M  •'<  KI:I> 
aquatic  ones  of  Australasia,  possess  modifications  of  skull-structure  and  other  details  that 
indicate  family  distinctness.  A  broad  external  character  that  serve  to  separate  this  group 
from  the  Terrapins  and  all  preceding  forms  is  that  the  neck,  when  drawn  within  the  cavity 
of  the  carapace,  is  not  flexed  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S,  but  simply  bent  sideways  along 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  body.  The  species  belonging  to  this  group,  which  includes 
the  Matamata,  Snake-necked,  and  Soft  shelled  Water-tortoises,  and  aU<>  a  few  essentially 
terrestrial  species,  arc  distinguished  collectively  by  the  appellation  of  the  "  Si  DE-NEC  RED 
TORTOISES. 


ELEPHANT-TORTOISE 


TORTOISES     AND    TURTLES 


161 


TURTLES 

Certain  of  the  Terrapins,  or  Water- tortoises,  belonging  to  the  groups  above  described 
frequent  saline  river-estuaries  and  salt  marshes,  but  none  are  strictly  marine.  With  the 
Turtle  Family,  however,  we  arrive  at  an  exclusively  pelagic  section,  in  which  the  animals 
are  specially  adapted  for  life  in  the  high  seas,  the  walking-limbs  of  the  terrestrial  and 
fresh-water  species  being  replaced  by  long  and  powerful  swimming-flippers.  The  shell  in 
these  marine  Chelonians  is  more  or  less  heart-shaped  and  flattened,  and  the  carapace  and 
plastron  are  always  separate,  and  never  united  in  a  rigid  box-like  form,  as  with  the  Land- 
tortoises.  In  common  with  those  fresh-water  tortoises  which  pass  the  greater  portion  of 
their  existence  in  lakes  or  rivers,  the  MARINE  TURTLES  resort  to  the  land  to  deposit  their 
eggs.  The  locations  chosen  are  the  sand-beaches  or  isolated  sandy  islets  in  tropical  oceans, 
wherein,  after  excavating  hollows  to  receive  them,  the  eggs  are  covered  up  and  left  to 


af  l>l,  Niw   Tor*  Zio/tfiW  Suittf 


SNAPPING-TURTLE 

Also  knoivn  as  the  Alligator-terrapin,  ivitk  reference  to  its  long,  alligator-like  tail 

hatch  with  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  eggs  of  turtles  differ  from  those  of  the  Land-tortoises 
and  Terrapins  in  that  their  external  covering  is  soft  or  leathery.  So  soon  as  the  young 
turtles  are  hatched,  they  emerge  from  the  sand,  and  instinctively  make  their  way  to  the 
water.  Many,  however,  are  the  perils  that  beset  their  course,  and  few  there  be  out  of 
perhaps  80  or  100  turtlets  which  gain  the  shore  and  get  through  into  deep  water.  Fish- 
hawks  and  sea-birds  of  every  description  are  waiting  ready  to  pounce  down  upon  them 
immediately  they  make  their  appearance,  or  to  thin  their  ranks  as  they  run  the  gauntlet  of 
perhaps  100  yards  or  so  to  reach  the  sea  in  safety.  Even  at  the  water's  edge  the  ordeal  is. 
by  no  means  passed.  Shoals  of  the  smaller  sharks  and  other  predatory  fish  are  continually 
cruising  round  in  the  shallow  water,  and  have  as  high  an  appreciation  of  the  toothsomeness 
of  tender  turtle  as  the  proverbial  London  alderman.  The  writer  was  fortunate  on  one 
"ccasion,  among  the  coral  islands  on  the  Australian  coasts,  to  light  upon  a  young  turtle  brood 


162       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fnui  kj    tort  &•  S.n] 


*t  Hill 


TEMMINCK'S   SNAPPER 


The  ni'O  lehite  pointt  viable  on  the  toiver  jaw  repretent  the  fair  of  tuorm-ltke  appen- 
dage* ivkicti  the  creature  utei  at  a  bait  to  attract  or  capture  fak 


just  emerging  from  their  sandy 
nest.  The  majority  were  assign  I 
to  the  sea,  and  a  few,  reserved 
in  the  interests  of  science,  were 
liberated  in  a  bath  of  sea-water 
to  have  their  first  swim.  Snap- 
shot photographs  were  taken,  one 
of  which,  reproduced  on  page  561, 
serves toillustrate  the  great  relative 
length  of  the  paddle-like  limbs  at 
this  early  stage  and  the  variety  of 
postures  assumed  during  natation. 
Of  the  typical  Marine  Turtles 
three  distinctly  characterised 
species  are  recognised  by  zoologists. 
These  are  the  GkKKX  Ti'un.K, 
indispensable  for  soup  at  alder- 
manic  banquets;  the  HAUKSHII.L, 
or  tortoiseshell-producing  turtle; 
and  the  LOGGERHEAD.  Of  these  three,  the  green  turtle  and  the  loggerhead  more  nearly 
resemble  one  another,  and  are  apt  to  be  confounded  by  the  uninitiated.  Such  an  error  is  very 
readily  detected  when  the  Chelonian  comes  to  the  table,  the  flesh  of  the  loggerhead  being 
rank  and  utterly  unfit  for  food.  In  order,  however,  to  be  wise  before  the  event,  and  to  avoid 
a  grievous  misdirection  of  culinary  energy  —  turtle  being  a  standard  dish  in  the  coral  seas  — 
it  is  only  necessary  to  count  the  number  of  large  shield-like  plates  that  flank  each  side  of  the 
central  series  in  the  creature's  carapace.  In  the  true  green  or  edible  turtle  there  are  only 
four  pairs  of  these  large  lateral  shields,  while  in  the  loggerhead  there  are  never  less  than  five, 
and  sometimes  more.  The  loggerhead-turtle  also,  as  its  name  implies,  has  a  conspicuously 
larger  and  coarser  head  than  the  esculent  species.  The  fact  that  while  the  green  turtle  is  a 
strict  vegetarian,  feeding  entirely  on  seaweeds,  the  loggerhead  is  altogether  carnivorous,  readily 
accounts  for  the  diametrically  diverse  gastronomic  properties  of  these  two  Cheloni.ms.  Both 
species  attain  to  a  considerable  size,  over  3  feet  in  length  (the  loggerhead  being  the  larger), 
and  are  found  inhabiting  the  same  waters  throughout  the  tropics. 

The  HAWKSBILL,  or  true  tortoiseshell-producing  turtle,  never  attains  to  quite  as  large 
dimensions  as  the  two  preceding  species,  though  its  carapace  may  measure  as  much  as  2  feet 
6  or  8  inches  long.  The  structural  feature  that  at  once  distinguishes  the  hawksbill  from 
either  the  green  or  loggerhead  species  is  the  character  of  the  horny  shields  developed  on 
the  surface  of  the  carapace.  Instead  of  the  edges  meeting  in  juxtaposition,  as  in  those  two 
forms,  they  overlap  one  another,  like  the  scales  of  a  fish,  and  are  notable  for  their  thickness 
and  their  exceedingly  beautiful  but  variably  marbled  patterns.  It  is  these  marbled  horny  plate-, 
which  constitute  the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce.  In  young  individuals  the  substance  is  thin 
and  very  transparent,  but  thickens  with  advancing  age.  until  in  old  individuals  the  plates 
may  vary  from  J  to  |  inch  in  thickness.  Like  the  two  preceding  species,  the  hawksbill,  within 
tropical  seas,  enjoys  a  cosmopolitan  distribution.  Its  habits,  like  the  loggerhead's,  are  essentially 
carnivorous;  but  while  the  flesh  is  coarse  and  rank,  the  eggs  are  valued  for  the  table. 

A  remaining  member  of  the  Marine  Turtle  series  is  the  Mi-called  I.rrn  or  Li  villKKY 
Tt'KTI.E.  This  Chelonian  differs  so  materially  in  structure  from  the  foregoing  specie-,  .is 
to  be  referred  to  a  distinct  family.  The  horny  plates,  so  conspicuous  in  all  the  other 
types,  are  entirely  absent,  the  bony  carapace,  which  is  distinctly  seven-ridged  longitudinally, 
being  covered  with  a  homogeneous  leather-like  skin.  Both  jaws  are  formidably  hooked  and 
cutting  throughout  their  edge-,  and  the  paddles  are  destitute  of  the  two  rudimentary  claws 
found  in  the  preceding  Tin  leathery  turtle  grows  to  an  immense  si/e ;  specimens 


TORTOISES     AND    TURTLES 


163 


have  been  recorded  measuring  as  much  as  8  feet  in  total  length  and  weighing  over  1,600  Ibs. 
Its  flesh  is  not  only  unfit  for  food,  but  is  reported  to  be  of  a  poisonous  character.  The  coasts 
of  Florida  and  Brazil  are  among  the  areas  where  the  leathery  turtle  is  met  with  in  the 
greatest  abundance. 

The  more  ordinary  method  of  capturing  turtle  for  the  market  or  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
of  the  larder  aboard  ship  in  tropical  climates  is  to  land  at  night,  preferably  when  the  moon 
is  full,  on  the  islands  to  which  the  females  are  in  the  habit  of  repairing  to  deposit  their  eggs. 
This  function  is  invariably  discharged  during  the  night  hours,  and  unless  the  moon  is  up  the 
presence  of  the  reptiles  is  not -easily  determined.  Time  is  generally  given  for  the  turtle  to 
excavate  its  sand-burrow  and  lay  its  eggs,  usually  over  a  hundred  in  number,  the  proper 


' 


'tni     F  Z  5  1 

NEWLY    HATCHED    TURTLES    ENJOYING    THEIR    FIRST    SWIM 

The  limbs  at  this  early  stage  of  their  development  are  of  an  abnormal  length 

moment  for  the  capture  being  that  when,  the  task  accomplished,  it  sets  forth  to  regain  its 
more  accustomed  element.  The  creature  is  then  seized  and  turned  suddenly  upon  its  back, 
where  it  is  left  to  struggle  and  flounder  helplessly,  being  perfectly  incapable  of  righting  itself! 
while  other  captures  are  made.  On  outlying  coral  islands,  such  as  those  of  the  Lacepedes,  off 
the  Western  Australian  coast,  several  dozen  of  the  Chelonians  may  represent  one  good  night's 
haul,  the  choice  of  the  fittest  examples  being  left  until  the  return  of  daylight. 

In  many  places  turtles  are  pursued  in  the  water  and  speared;  while  in  some  locations, 
notably  at  Keeling  Island,  as  recorded  by  Darwin,  the  animals  are  chased  by  the  natives  in 
sailing-craft.  One  man  steers  the  boat,  the  other  one  standing  in  the  bows  on  the  look-out 
for  turtle.  A  Chelonian  being  sighted,  an  exciting  stern  chase  ensues,  and  on  coming  abreast 
with  the  quarry  the  look-out  man  plunges  into  the  water  straight  upon  the  turtle's  back,  and 


164      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


CUBAN    TERRAPINS 

h  common  viitlt  many  tthtr  uiattr-lorlolui,  or  terrapins,  this  iftciei  ii  iiicntiatlj  gregarloui  in  ill  liabiti 

clings  pertinaciously  with  both  hands  to  the  shell  of  the  neck  until  the  creature  is  exhausted, 
when  it  is  dragged  into  the  boat. 

The  most  remarkable  method  of  taking  turtle,  however,  is  that  practised  in  Torres  Straits, 
as  also  at  Mozambique  and  formerly  in  the  West  Indies.  The  sucking-fish,  or  remora.  is  in 
this  case  impressed  into  the  service  of  the  human  fishers.  Taking  advantage  of  the  fish's 
natural  propensity  to  swim  towards  and  adhere  pertinaciously  to  any  larger  floating  object, 
fishermen  go  out  with  specimens  kept  alive  in  a  small  well  in  the  bottom  of  their  boats. 
When  in  pursuit  of  turtle,  a  long  light  line  is  attached  to  the  fish's  tail ;  and  coming  within 
sight  of  a  Chelonian,  the  fish,  with  an  abundance  of  slack  or  pay-out  line,  is  thrown  in  the 
direction  of  the  turtle.  The  remora  immediately  swims  towards  and  adheres  firmly  to  the 
under  surface  of  the  shell  of  the  turtle,  when  it  will  suffer  its  body  to  be  torn  asunder 
rather  than  let  go  its  hold  of  its  newly  gained  sanctuary.  Should  the  turtle  be  a  small 
one,  both  fish  and  turtle  are  dragged  with  the  line  back  to  the  boat.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  of  large  size,  one  of  the  natives  plunges  into  the  water,  and,  following  the  line  down, 

secures  the  turtle. 

In  the  island  of  Ascension  the  cultivation  and  breeding  of  turtles  for  exportation  in 
artificially  constructed  enclosures  have  for  a  considerable  time  been  the  subject  of  an  important 
industry.  There  are  doubtless  many  other  locations  on  both  the  Australian  coast-line  and  in 
the  British  West  Indies  where  this  highly  profitable  trade  could  be  established.  In  addition 
to  the  green  turtle,  attention  might  also  be  profitably  directed  at  the  same  locations  to  the 
culture  of  the  tortoiseshell-bearing  species.  Tortoiseshell  possesses  the  singular  and  useful 
property  of  being  susceptible  of  perfect  amalgamation.  Consequently  a  number  of  small-sized 
pieces  can  be  welded  so  indistinguishably  with  one  another  as  to  serve  the  same  use  as  the 
larger  plates  for  commercial  purposes,  this  amalgamation  is  effected  by  bevelling  the  edges 
of  the  two  pieces  that  it  is  desired  to  unite  along  the  proposed  line  of  junction,  and  then, 
while  they  are  held  in  juxtaposition  in  a  metallic  press,  submitting  them  to  the  action  of 
boiling  water. 


CHAPTER     III 


LIZARDS 

THE  Lizard  Tribe  or  Sub-order  is  notable  as  containing 
a  greater  number  of  specific  forms  than  any  other 
of  the  Reptilian  groups,  no  less  than  1 ,700  distinct 
species  being  described  in  the  most  recently  published 
catalogues.  While  formerly  regarded  as  constituting  a 
separate  and  independent  order  of  the  Reptile  Class,  later 
investigations  have  demonstrated  that  lizards  are  so  inti- 
mately related  through  sundry  intermediate  types  with  the 
Snakes  that  they  cannot  be  recognised  as  constituting  other 
than  a  sub-section  of  the  same  order.  The  two  groups  of 
the  Lizards  and  Snakes  are  consequently,  and  with  refer- 
ence more  particularly  to  their  commonly 
shared  scaly  armatures,  technically  distin- 
guished by  the  appellation  of  Scaled  Reptiles. 
While  the  more  typical  members  of  the 
Lizard  Tribe  are  readily  distinguished  from 
the  Snakes  by  the  possession  of  well- 
developed  limbs,  a  no  inconsiderable  number 
of  species  are  altogether  devoid  of  these 
appendages,  or  possess  them  only  in  a 
partially  developed  or  rudimentary  condition. 
The  British  BLIND-WORM,  or  SLOW-WORM, 
constitutes  an  example  of  such  a  legless 
lizard,  although  on  account  of  its  outward 
snake-like  appearance  it  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  snake  by  the  un- 
educated. In  the  South  Euro- 
pean so-called  GLASS-SNAKE,  or 
SCHELTOPUSIK,  here  figured,  the 
snake-like  aspect  and  creeping 
habits  are  still  more  conspicuous, 
but  yet  when  examined  more  crit- 
ically its  lizard  affinities  become 
apparent.  One  of  the  most  readily 
apprehended  external  characters 
that  serve  to  distinguish  this 
and  the  majority  of  the  legless 
lizards  from  snakes  is  the  posses- 
sion by  the  former  of  movable 
eyelids  and  conspicuous  external 
ear-openings.  Among  snakes 
eyelids  are  invariably  absent,  the 


F h,l,  ty  E.  C. 

BLIND-WORM 

Notwithstanding    its   namft    the   bllnd-ivorm 
sestet  small,  'very  bright  little  eyes 


Ph,l>  ky  W.  Savllli-Kint,  F.Z.S.  \_MHftrd-, n.S,a 

GLASS-SNAKE,    OR    SCHELTOPUSIK 

The  presence  of  movable  eyelids  distinguishes  this  legless  lizard  from 
the  true  snakes 


Phet,  *j  W.  Smillt-Kint,  F.Z.S.  ] 

GLASS-SNAKE 


Snails  constitute  the  favourite  food  of  the  glass-snake 


165 


166       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


eyes,  by  way  of  compensation,  being 
covered  by  transparent  horny  plates, 
which  impart  to  these  creatures  that 
peculiar  stony'  stare  which  un- 
doubtedly constitutes  one  of  the 
most  repulsive  features  of  their  tribe. 
There  are,  however,  a  few  exceptional 
lizards  devoid  of  eyelids,  though  these 
species  do  not  take  a  snake-like  form. 
Lizards,  while  distributed  through- 
out temperate  and  tropical  regions. 
attain  to  the  zenith  of  their  repre- 
sentation in  size,  number,  and  variety 
of  form  and  colour  in  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  countries.  The  majority 
of  species  ,are  essentially  sun-wor- 
shippers, and  in  temperate  climates, 
such  as  that  of  England,  where  they 
are  but  sparsely  represented,  pass  the 
cheerless  winter  months  in  a  .state  '-I" 
torpid  hibernation. 

The  first  position  among  the 
Lizard  Tribe  is  usually  accorded  to 
the  GECKO  FAMILV-  a^nmp number- 
ing 280  species,  which  present  several 
somewhat  anomalous  features  and 
characteristics.  In  the  first  place,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  majority  of 
lizard  forms,  they  are  for  the  most 
part  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and 
have  their  eyes  specially  modified  to 
meet  them.  Geckos,  as  the  exception 
to  the  ordinan-  lizards  previously 
referred  to,  possess  no  eyelids  and 

the  pupil  of  the  eye,  as  seen  in  broad  daylight,  is  mostly  represented  by  a  narrow  vertical  slit, 

like  that  of  a  cat,  or  a  nocturnal  dog-fish.     As  the  night  approaches,  however,  the  membranous 

diaphragm  is  retracted,  displaying  to  view  a  symmetrically  orbicular  pupil  of  abnormal   size 

and     luminosity.        Another 

prominent    characteristic    of 

the    geckos   is   the    peculiar 

modification    of    their    feet, 

which  in  most  instances  are 

furnished  with  adhesive  disks 

or  pads,  which  enable  these 

lizards  to  run  with  ease,  after 

the   manner  of  flies,  on  the 

smooth  surface  of  a  wall  or 

window-pane,  or  even    along 

the    ceiling.       It    is    further 

noteworthyofthcgeckosth.it  '*«•  -,-;, /. 

they  are  the  only  lizards  which  BURMESE  GECKO 

possess  the  power  of  emitting  UnJer-iurface  ihowing  minute  hexagonal  icalti  and  pecut:~i  uructuri  of  ikt  adnetive  uc-fjj> 


Fn.t,  t,  If.  Smvllli-KM,  F.Z.S. 

BURMESE    GECKOS 

Ont  of  ike  largest  members  of  the  tribe,  measuring  S  or  lo  indict  in  length 


LIZARDS 


167 


Phata  t,  If.  Saville-Ktnl,  F.Z.S. 


MADEIRAN    GECKOS 


Madeiran  geckos  photographed  through  a  glass  ivindoiu-pane,  showing  the  peculiar  formation  of  their  adhesive  toe-pads.      One  example  is 
regro-wing  in  recently  amputated  tail.      These  geckos  often  travel  from  Madeira  to  Covent  Garden  Market  among  banana  bunches 

distinct  vocal  sounds.  The  name  Gecko  is,  in  point  of  fact,  derived  from  the  fancied  resemblance 
to  the  word  that  constitutes  the  shrill,  somewhat  bird-like  note  of  one  of  the  most  familiar 
species.  "  Tok,"  "  toki,"  "chick,  chick,"  "  checko,"  and  "  tocktoo  "  are  distinctive  call-notes 
that  are  respectively  associated  with  other  members  of  the  Gecko  Family. 

The  geckos  are  most  numerously  represented  in  the  Indian  and  Australasian  regions.  None 
of  them  attain  to  large  dimensions.  They  rarely  exceed  I  foot  in  total  length,  and  most 
frequently  measure  some  3  or  4  inches  only. 

Geckos,  in  common  with  many  other  lizards,  are  notable  for  the  facility  with  which  their 
tail  becomes  detached  and  left  in  the  hands  of  their  would-be  captor.  In  course  of  time  a 
new  tail  sprouts  out  from  the  truncated  stump  of  the  original  member,  and  within  a  few  more 
months  equals  it  in  dimensions.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  two  or  even  three  new 
tail-sprouts  take  the  place  of  the  original  appendage,  imparting  to  the  little  creature  a  most 
bizarre  appearance.  The  above  photograph  includes  an  example  of  the  Madeiran  species  in 
which  a  new  tail-bud  of  a  normal  character  has  just  commenced  to  grow. 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  phenomenon  of  flight  among  lizards  occurs  in  what  are  known 
as  the  FLYING-DRAGONS,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Agamas,  which  next  invites  attention. 
These  lizards  are  all  of  relatively  small  size,  not  exceeding  a  few  inches  in  length,  and  inhabit 
the  Indo-Malayan  region.  In  these  singularly  specialised  forms  six  or  seven  of  the  posterior 
ribs  are  abnormally  produced  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  so  united  together  by  thin,  semi- 
transparent  membrane  as  to  form  a  pair  of  wing-like  expansions.  When  not  in  use,  these 
structures  are  folded,  after  the  manner  of  a  fan,  closely  against  the  animal's  sides,  while,  when 
extended,  they  constitute  a  most  effective  parachute,  wherewith  the  little  creatures  accomplish 
flying  leaps  from  tree  to  tree,  after  the  manner  of  the  Flying-squirrels  and  Phalangers.  The 


168      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


colour  of  these  wing-like  structures 
varies  among  the  many  different 
specific  forms,  being  in  some  instances 
spotted  or  reticulated  like  those  of  a 
butterfly. 

This  same  family  of  the  Agamoid 
Lizards  includes  a  number  of  species 
of  vcr\  dissimilar  aspect  and  habits, 
which  are  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  the  Old  WorldorOrientalzoloogical 
region.  Australia  in  particular  is 
remarkably  rich  in  representative--,  of 
this  group,  many  of  them  of  con- 
siderable size.  Certain  of  these  have 
within  recent  years  been  found  to 
be  endowed  with  the  power  of  bipedal 
locomotion.  The  FRILLED  LIZARD 
of  Queensland  and  the  northern 
territories  of  Western  Australia  was 
the  first  species  in  which  this  bipedal 
habit  was  authentically  demonstrated 
in  connection  with  examples  observed 
in  Australia  and  also  brought  to 
England  by  the  writer,  one  of  the 
last-named  examples  furnishing  the 
photographs  reproduced  on  page  567. 
In  other  respects  this  lizard  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  its  tribe. 
The  peculiar  Elizabethan  collar-like 
frill,  capable  of  erection  or  depression 
at  the  creature's  will,  imparts  to  it 
a  most  singular  appearance.  When 
at  rest  or  undisturbed,  this  mem- 
branous frill-like  structure  is  folded 
down  in  neat,  symmetrical  pleats 
around  the  li/.ard's  neck.  Should  the 
creature  be  approached  by  man  or 
dog  or  other  aggressive  animal,  the  mouth  springs  open  to  its  widest,  and  simultaneously  with 
this  action  the  frill  is  erected  like  the  sudden  opening  of  an  umbrella,  and  stands  out  at  right 
angles  around  the  neck,  imparting  to  it  a  most  formidable  and  threatening  aspect.  Dogs,  in 
fact,  which  will  habitually  chase  and  kill  larger  lizards,  such  as  the  Monitors,  will  frequently 
halt  and  retire  discomfited  when  confronted  with  a  frilled  lizard  at  bay  with  its  frill  erected. 
The  brilliant  colour  of  this  frill,  more  especially  in  the  male,  adds  very  considerably  to  the 
formidable  appearance  of  this  lizard.  While  the  body  of  this  lizard  is  usually  of  a  light 
brown  colour,  with  more  or  less  distinct  darker  transverse  bars  and  reticulations,  the  frill-like 
membrane  has  a  ground-colour  in  which  orange  and  chrome-yellow  chiefly  predominate,  and 
upon  which  are  superimposed  splashings  and  speckles  of  brilliant  scarlet.  While  the  total 
length  of  this  averages  2  feet,  the  expanded  frill  in  adult  males  is  not  infrequently  as 
much  as  8  or  9  inches  in  diameter.  The  peculiar,  grotesquely  human  aspect  presented 
by  the  frilled  lizard  when  running  on  its  hind  legs  only  will  be  appreciated  on  reference 
to  the  accompanying  photographs.  This  erect  attitude  is  only  assumed  when  the  frilled 
lizard  is  traversing  more  or  less  considerable  distances  and  moving  on  level  ground.  Under 


/•»...»>  V.fartJIfrXM,  f.Z.S. 

FLYING-DRAGON    OF   JAVA 

A  lizard  witk  •wing'like  membranet  '.upported  t>\  the  abnormally  developed  ribt. 
It  taket  long  fl'ghtt  from  tree  to  tree 


PhtH  *r  If.  Savilli-Kint,  F.Z.S. 

FRILLED    LIZARD    AT    BAY    WITH 


EXPANDED    FRILL 


Mot.  kj  W.  Savillt-Kinl,  F.Z.S. 

FRILLED    LIZARD    WITH    FRILL 
FOLDED    UP 


' 


1 


Phlll  h    If. 


Mill  t>>  W.  Sauillt-KM,  F.Z.S. 

FRIL  IZARD    RUNNING    ON    ITS    HIND  FRILLED    LIZARD    RUNNING    ON    ITS    HIND 

LEGS    (VIEW    FROM    THE    REAR)  LEGS    (BROADSIDE   VIEW) 

169 


l?0       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


other  circumstances  it  progresses  on  all-fours,  after  the  manner  of  the  ordinary  members  of 
its  class. 

Several  other  lizards  belonging  to  the  family  group  of  the  Agamas  have  been  demon- 
strated by  the  writer  to  move  in  the  same  manner  as  the  frilled  species.  LESEUR'S 
WATER-LIZARD,  also  a  Queensland  form,  which  attains  to  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet,  is  a 
notable  example  in  this  connection.  As  implied  by  its  name,  it  is  semi-aquatic  in  its 
habits.  It  frequents  scrubs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  river-banks  and  backwaters,  and  passes  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  time  in  shallow  water  with  only  its  nostrils  elevated  above  the 
surface.  It  is  a  most  expert  swimmer,  sculling  itself  with  grace  and  rapidity,  aided  only  by 
its  long,  laterally  compressed  tail.  Examples  brought  to  England  and  kept  alive  for  some 
years  by  the  writer  were  observed,  in  hot  weather  more  particularly,  to  sleep  at  nights  in 
their  water-tanks. 

The  several  instances  of  bipedal  locomotion  among  living  lizards,  as  here  chronicled,  are 

of  especial  interest  in  correlation  with  the 
circumstance  that  certain  extinct  Dinosaurs 
habitually  progressed  on  their  hind  limbs 
only.  They,  in  fact,  have  left  "  footprints  on 
the  sands  of  time  "  which  indubitably  prove 
this  assumption.  There  is,  however,  no 
relationship  between  the  two  groups,  and 
the  resemblance  is  one  of  pure  analogy, 
just  as  both  bats  and  birds  fly,  although 
they  have  no  kinship. 

Among  other  interesting  lizards  included 
in  the  Agama  Family,  mention  may  be 
made  of  the  singular  JEW  or  BEAKIH-:I> 
LIZARD  of  Australia  —  a  flattened,  broad-set 
form,  some  14  or  15  inches  long,  brown  in 
hue,  and  clothed  with  rough  imbricated  scales, 
but  whose  chief  peculiarity  consists  of  the  ex- 
pansive beard-like  development  of  the  cuticle 
immediately  underneath  the  animal's  chin. 
As  in  the  frilled  lizard,  this  cutictilar  ex- 
crescence is  only  conspicuous  when  the 
creature  is  excited,  at  other  times  being 
contracted  and  indistinguishable  from  an 
ordinary  skin-fold.  When  retiring  to  rest, 
these  lizards,  in  their  adult  state,  almost 
invariably  climb  up  and  cling  to  the  rough  bark  of  a  convenient  tree,  and  when  young 
and  more  slender  will  also  ascend  saplings,  on  which  they  sleep,  clinging  by  their  inter- 
locked claws. 

Another  member  of  the  Agama  Family  which  invites  brief  notice  is  the  so-called  YORK 
DEVIL,  or  MOUNTAIN-DEVIL,  of  Western  and  Central  Australia.  This  lizard  is  of  comparatively 
small  size,  rarely  exceeding  6  or  7  inches  in  length.  Its  feeble  form  and  stature,  however, 
arc  abundantly  compensated  for  by  the  complex  panoply  of  spines  and  prickles  by  which 
its  head  and  limbs  and  body  are  effectually  protected.  The  natural  food  of  this  singular 
lizard  consists  exclusively  of  ants,  the  small  black,  evil-smelling  species  which  often  proves 
itself  a  pest  by  its  invasion  of  the  Australian  colonists'  houses  being  its  prime  favourite. 
These  are  picked  up  one  by  one  by  the  rapid  flash-like  protrusion  and  retraction  of  the 
little  creature's  adhesive  tongue,  and  the  number  of  ants  which  arc  thus  assimilated  by  a 
Moloch  lizard  at  a  single  meal  is  somewhat  astonishing.  A  number  of  examples  of  this 
species  were  kept  by  the  writer  in  Australia,  and  their  gastronomic  requirements  fully  satisfied 


Fluit 


U'.  Savilli.K 


AUSTRALIAN   TREE-LIZARD 

Tkis  species  also  runt  on  its  kind  legi 


LIZARDS 


171 


every  day  by  taking  them  into 
the  garden  and  placing  them 
in  communication  with  a 
swarming  ant  track.  By  care- 
ful observation  it  was  found 
that  no  less  than  from  1,000 
to  1,500  ants  were  devoured 
by  each  lizard  at  a  single 
sitting.  The  ant-devouring 
proclivities  of  these  prickly 
little  lizards  can  no  doubt  be 
turned  to  very  useful  and 
effective  account  in  clearing 

ant-infested     domiciles,     and  p*«.  <./  w.  S^M,.K.M,  F.Z.S. 

were  in   fact  thus  utilised  by  .    AUSTRALIAN    WATER-LIZARD 

the   Writer    On    more   tnan    one  f^s  //zar(/;,  of  aquatic  habits,  and  runs  on  its  hind  legs  when  traversing  long  distances 

occasion. 

The  lizards  included  in  the  Agama  Family  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  none  occurring  in  America.  In  the  western  continent,  however,  we  find  an 
equally  extensive  but  structurally  distinct  group  which  presents  many  singularly  corresponding 
types.  This  family  comprises  the  true  IGUANAS,  many  of  them  of  considerable  size,  and  a 
numerous  assemblage  of  smaller  forms.  Among  those  species  which  present  a  striking  parallel 
in  size  and  aspect  to  the  peculiarly  characteristic  Old  World  Agamas,  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  little  so-called  HORNED  TOAD,  or  SPINY  LIZARD,  of  California.  This  species  might 
readily  be  taken  by  the  uninitiated  for  a  near  relation  of  the  Australian  Moloch  Lizard,  or 
Mountain-devil,  last  described,  its  flattened  diminutive  form  and  bristling  spiny  armature 
seemingly  justifying  such  a  supposition.  The  crucial  test  afforded  by  the  character  of  the 
dentition,  however,  distinctly  indicates  its  true  position  to  be  with  the  Iguanas.  In  the  Agamas 
the  teeth  are  invariably  developed  from  the  apex,  or  summit,  of  the  jaw.  These  teeth, 

moreover,  are  varied  in  character. 
In  the  Iguanas,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  teeth  are  all  more  or  less  uni- 
form in  character,  and  are  attached 
to  the  outer  sides  of  the  jaw. 

The  larger  iguanas  are,  for  the 
most  part,  exclusively  fruit-  and 
vegetable-feeders,  and  arboreal  in 
their  habits.  The  thick  forest  scrubs 
in  the  vicinity  of  streams  and  rivers 
are  their  favourite  resort.  After  the 
manner  of  the  Australian  water- 
lizards,  these  Iguanas  are  expert 
swimmers,  and  delight  in  lying  along 
the  overhanging  branches,  whence 
at  the  slightest  alarm  they  can  pre- 
cipitate themselves  into  the  water 
beneath.  When  swimming,  the 
fore  limbs  are  folded  back  against 
the  sides,  the  tail  only  being  used 
as  a  means  of  propulsion.  Sev- 
eral of  the  larger  Iguanas,  such 
as  the  common  or  tuberculated 


L 

Pbcto  tf  (f.  Savi 


AUSTRALIAN    WATER-LIZARD 

Showing  attitude  ivhen  running 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Mm  t. 


,  F.Z.S. 

BEARDED    LIZARD 

With  in  beard-likt  throat-membrane  fully  txfandid 


Mm  ky  1C.  Seiilli-Kint,  T.Z.S  1  {Mtlfr'd-**- 

AUSTRALIAN    JEW    OR    BEARDED    LIZARDS 

The  icalii  of  tlit  bearded  lizard  are  exceedingly  rough  and  sharp,  sometimes  cutting  the  tiiti 
of  those  ivho  handle  them  incautiously 

found  it  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  shores  of  the 
islands  which  constitute  the  Galapagos  group.  The  lizards 
were  observed  to  spend  much  of  their  time  swimming  in 
the  sea,  but  at  no  very  great  distance  from  the  land.  Experi- 
ments proved  that  they  could  live  for  a  very  considerable 
interval  entirely  submerged,  examples  sunk  with  weights  for 
as  much  as  an  hour  emerging  entirely  unaffected  from  the 
ordeal. 

While  the  Iguanas  may  be  described  as  essentially 
American,  one  or  two  exceptional  forms  are  found  inhabiting 
the  relatively  remote  regions  of  the  Fiji  Islands  and  Mada- 
gascar. The  so-called  FIJI  BANDED  IGUANA  (photographs  of 
a  pair  of  which,  once  in  the  writer's  possession,  are  reproduced 
on  page  575)  is  a  very  beautiful  creature.  The  body  is 
shapely  and  well  proportioned,  and  terminates  in  a  tail  of 
abnormal  length — equal  to  quite  twice  that  of  the  body- 
the  entire  dimensions  measuring  some  3  feet.  Tin-  male  is 
much  more  bright  in  hue  than  the  female;  for  while  the 
latter  is  usually  of  a  uniform  light  given  throughout,  the 
male  is  variegated,  with  broad,  alternating  bands  of  brightest 


species,  attain  to  a  considerable 
length,  5  or  6  feet;  their  bodies 
are  proportionably  thick,  and  the 
white  flesh,  in  this  last-named 
variety  more  particularly,  is  highly 
esteemed  as  a  table  delicacy.  The 
common  TUBERCULATED  I<.i  \\\ 
is  an  essentially  handsome  species, 
its  skin  being  variegated  with 
bands  and  shadings  of  brown  and 
green,  which  are  lightest  and 
brightest  in  the  males  and  younger 
individuals;  .the  neck  and  snout 
and  jaws  are  decorated  with  pro- 
jecting, rounded  tubercles ;  a  large. 
baggy,  dewlap-like  membrane, 
capable  of  inflation  at  the  animal's 
will,  depends  from  the  chin  and 
throat ;  and  a  deeply  serrated  cn-^t 
of  elevated  scales  extends  from 
behind  the  head,  down  the  centre 
of  the  back,  nearly  to  the  extremity 
of  the  tail. 

The  Iguana  Family  includes 
a  species  with  essentially  marine 
proclivities,  this  being  the  GALA- 
PAGOS SEA-I.I/AKD.  This  animal 
was  first  discovered  to  science  by 
the  late  Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  who 


>    If.    *j:  I.,.- /i. ..:,    t./.    >. 


A    YOUNG    BEARDED  LIXARD 

Showing  in  habitual  ilttpir.g  attitude 


LIZARDS 


173 


AUSTRALIAN   YORK    OR    MOUNTAIN -DEVIL 

A  spinous  lizard  'which  inhabits  the  arid  plains  of  Central  Australia 


emerald-greenand  paleFrenchgrey.  Around 
the  lips  and  eyes  there  are  lines  of  brightest 
yellow,  and  the  throat  is  almost  pure  white. 

The  small  group  of  GIRDLE-TAILED 
LIZARDS  belongs  exclusively  to  the  African 
and  Madagascan  regions,  its  typical  repre- 
sentative being  the  Cape  and  Orange  River 
Colony  species,  illustrated  on  page  575.  The 
symmetrical  whorls  of  long,  spinous  scales 
encircling  the  tail  in  this  and  the  allied 
forms  constitute  a  prominent  feature,  and 
have  originated  the  popular  name  of  Girdle- 
tails. 

The  most  aberrant  representatives  of 
the  Lizard  Tribe,  with  regard  to  one  very 
important  characteristic,  are  undoubtedly  the 
two  species  of  HELODERM,  or"  SILATICA,"  as 
they  are  called  by  the  natives.  These  reptiles 
(page  576)  occupy  the  unenviable  position  of 
being  the  only  known  lizards  which  possess 
poisonous  properties,  their  bite  having  been 
demonstrated  to  be  fatal  to  smaller  mammals, 
and  to  be  attended  by  very  serious  symptoms  in  the  case  of  human  subjects  being  bitten. 
The  more  common  MEXICAN  HELODERM  has  been  in  residence  at  the -Zoo  for  many  years;  it 
attains  to  a  length  of  from  18  to  20  inches,  and  its  stout,  squat  body,  short  limbs,  warty  skin, 
and  peculiar  colouring  are  calculated  at  first  sight  to  awaken  a  feeling  of  revulsion  in  the 
beholder.  Like  the  wasp,  the  salamander,  and  other  animals  whose  conspicuous  tints  indicate 
their  poisonous  or  other  baneful  properties,  the  heloderm  is  distinguished  by  a  lurid  ground- 
colour, varying  in  individuals  from  yellow-orange  to  flesh-pink,  upon  which  are  superimposed 
bold,  network-like  markings  of  blue-black  or  dark  brown  tints.  Along  the  tail  these  reticu- 
lations usually  take  the  form  of  more  or  less 
f  irregular  rings. 

Although  the  heloderms  possess  such 
deadly  properties,  those  at  the  Zoo  manifest 
a  by  no  means  aggressive  disposition,  and 
allow  their  keeper  or  even  strangers  to  handle 
them  with  impunity.  In  experiments  pur- 
posely made  to  substantiate  or  refute  the 
previously  current  rumours  as  to  the  poison- 
ous nature  of  these  animals,  two  guinea-pigs 
succumbed  to  bites  received  in  the  course 
of  the  day.  The  owner  of  the  reptiles,  who 
was  also  bitten  on  one  occasion  through 
incautiously  handling,  suffered  very  severe, 
though  happily  not  fatal,  effects.  In  con- 
nection with  its  poison-dealing  properties  it 
is  found  that  it  possesses  certain  long  and 
fang-like  teeth,  which  are  set  loosely  in  the 
,  jaws,  and  which  have  grooves  before  and 

Fh»t,  h  W.  swiii,. KM,  F.Z.S.  behind   for  the  transmission  of  the  poison, 

SPINOUS    LIZARD,    OR    MOUNTAIN-DEVIL  which  is  secreted  by  special   glands  situated 

Thh  species  feeds  exclusively  upon  ants  close  to  their  base.     The  favourite  habitat  of 

12 


174      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fku.  t,  If.  Sivl.lt- KIKI,  F.Z.S. 

A  GROUP  OF  MOUNTAIN-DEVILS  OF  CENTRAL  AUSTRALIA 

tkt  ipinei  of  theu  hzat  dt  art  to  sharp  that  they  iv'tlt  fierce  a  tender  hand 


the  hcloderm  is  the  arid,  sandy, 
and  stony  region  on  the-  \\ 
side  of  the  Cordillera  mount, iin- 
range.  It  is  at  the  same  time 
said  to  be  rarely  seen  in  those 
parts  except  during  the  rainy 
season,  and  also  to  be  for  the 
most  part  nocturnal  in  its  habits. 
The  family  group  of  the 
Mi'MroKs  includes  the  largest 
of  existing  lizards,  notably  the 
semi-aquatic  form  common  to 
North  Australia  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  adjacent  islan  Is, 
which  attains  a  length  of  8  or 
10  feet,  and  is  not  infrequently 
mistaken,  as  it  rushes,  on  bc-ing 
disturbed,  through  thr  reeds  and 
other  rank  herbage  to  the 
water,  for  a  young  crocodile. 
An  exceedingly  fine  and  well  set-up  example  of  these  huge  water-monitors,  shot  by  Captain 
Stanley  Flower  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Singapore,  is  placed  in  the  Reptile  Gallery  of  the 
Natural  History  Museum. 

Another  species,  indigenous  to  the  Southern  Australian  States,  and  having  essentially 
arboreal  habits,  commonly  attains  to  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet.  The  skin  of  one  example  of 
this  .species,  obtained  for  the  writer  from  the  eucalyptus  forests  in  Gippsland,  Victoria,  measures 
no  less  than  7  feet  long.  With  reference  to  the  elegant  lace-like  pattern  of  its  skin-markings, 
this  species  is  frequently  associated  with  the  suggestive  title  of  the  LACE-LIZARD.  Among  the 
more  illiterate  settlers  it  is  generally  known  as  a  Gooana.the  name  being  obviously  a  corruption 
of  Iguana,  and  being,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  applied  promiscuously,  and  in  all  cases  incorrectly, 
to  a  number  of  the  larger  Australian  lizards. 

All  the  members  of  the  Monitor  Tribe  are  inveterate  egg-eaters.  An  Egyptian  species,  the 
NILE  MONITOR,  renders  service  to  humanity  through  the  gratification  of  this  propensity  in  seek- 
ing out  and  devouring  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile.  The  larger  water-monitor  of  the  North  Australian 
and  Malay  regions  has  been  reported  to 
the  writer  to  be  particularly  partial  to 
the  eggs  of  the  turtle,  digging  them  out 
of  the  sand  in  which  the  parent  deposits 
them,  and  destroying  them  wholesale.  The 
more  strictly  arboreal  Southern  Australian 
species  preys  to  a  very  large  extent  on 
birds'  eggs,  climbing  to  the  holes  in 
the  trunks  and  branches  in  which  so 
many  Australian  birds  build  their  nests, 
and  not  infrequently  capturing  and 
devouring  also  the  parent  birds  and 
young.  In  the  "  bush  "  settlements 
this  monitor  is  notorious  for  its  depre- 
dations among  the  hen-roosts,  both  < 
and  young  chickens  falling  victims  to  wi. 

its    insatiable    appetite.        It    is     conse-  HoKNin   TO  An 

regarded    with    but     SCant     favour  ji  ipmy  KxarJ,  icmm-tat  rtumtlin^  ike  Australian  m™«tatr,-dtf<l 


LIZARDS 


175 


by  poultry-farmers,  who  frequently  organise  a  "  gooana  "  hunt  for  its  special  destruction.  If 
surprised  out  in  the  open,  the  quarry  at  once  rushes  for  a  tree,  and  manifests  the  most  remark- 
able agility  in  "  swarming  "  up  the  smooth,  massive  trunk,  and  in  dodging  round  to  the  side 
opposite  to  that  on  which  the  sportsman  approaches.  Not  infrequently,  trees  being  remote, 
the  monitor  will  make  for  what  appears  to  its  apprehension  the  best  substitute  for  one  — 
vie.  the  upright  figure  of  the  nearest  sportsman.  Should  this  happen  to  be  a  "new  chum" 
enjoying  his  maiden  essay  in  "  gooana "  hunting,  he  will  undoubtedly  experience  a  new 
sensation  as  the  animal,  with  its  sharp  cat-like  claws,  unceremoniously  scrambles  up  to  his 
head  and  shoulders. 

Brought  to  bay,  a  monitor  pos- 
sesses a  more  formidable  weapon 
than  its  teeth  and  claws  wherewith 
to  repulse  the  onslaught  of  the 
enemy.  The  long,  tough,  thong- 
like  tail  —  not  brittle  and  replace- 
able, as  in  many  other  lizards  — 
is  converted,  for  the  time  being, 
into  a  veritable  stock-whip,  where- 
with it  will  most  severely  punish 
incautious  aggressors  who  venture 
too  near.  The  potency  of  this 
offensive  and  defensive  weapon  is 
fully  recognised  by  the  reptile- 
keepers  at  the  Zoo,  who  freely 
admit  their  reluctance  to  enter 
the  cage  of  one  of  these  large, 
long-tailed,  but  conversely  very 
short-tempered  monitors.  All  of 
the  monitors,  in  consonance  with 
their  pre-eminently  carnivorous 
habits,  are  more  or  less  savage  and 

intractable.     The   several    species          «•<«  */  if.  s«««.  *««,  F.Z.S. 
which  have  fallen  within  the  writer's  HORNED  TOAD 

cognisance  proved  no  exception  to  TUl  ,fecies  is  ughiy  priatJfor  itt  imect-dtaroyi^  pruliwtiei 

the  rule.     An  Egyptian  example, 

injudiciously  introduced  to  the  select  society  of  his  extensive  miscellaneous  collection  in 
a  heated  greenhouse,  proved  to  be  a  veritable  wolf  in  the  fold,  killing  several  of  the 
choicest  specimens  before  its  vindictive  propensities  were  detected  and  arrested.  A  com- 
paratively small  and  rare  spiny-tailed  monitor,  brought  by  the  writer,  in  company  with 
the  frilled  lizards,  to  England  from  North-west  Australia,  would  harass  and  bite  any  other 
lizard  placed  with  it,  and  resent  every  friendly  overture  on  the  part  of  its  owner,  even 
after  so  much  as  a  whole  twelvemonth's  persistent  attempts  to  tame  it.  Another,  the 
South  Australian  monitor,  or  lace-lizard,  was  no  exception  to  the  rule,  and  had  to  be 
maintained  in  solitary  confinement.  This  particular  specimen,  nevertheless,  evinced,  as  the 
following  anecdote  will  show,  a  very  pronounced  affection  for  its  provided  quarters.  One 
day  it  effected  its  escape  from  the  wire-enclosed  cage  with  which  it  was  accommodated  in 
the  writer's  Brisbane  garden,  and  after  prolonged  but  unsuccessful  searchings  it  was  given 
up  for  lost.  Considerable  astonishment  was  naturally  experienced  some  ten  days  later, 
when  the  animal  was  discovered  in  the  garden  making  frantic  attempts  to  regain  access 
to  its  former  prison-house.  During  its  ten  days'  absence  it  had  evidently  fallen  upon  evil 
times,  for  not  only  was  it  in  a  very  emaciated  condition,  but  also  bereft  of  its  long  and 
handsome  tail.  Apparently,  after  the  manner  of  its  tribe,  it  had  been  manifesting  a  too  warm 


I?6     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


TUBERCULATED    IGUANA 
THt  iftciii  it  tutemed  for  food  by  American  Indiant 


interest  in  some  neighbour's  hen- 
roost, and  received  across  its  tail  a 
stroke  with  a  spade  or  other  cutting 
instrument  that  was  intended  for  a 
more  vital  region.  Disgusted  by  such 
unfriendly  treatment,  it  evidently 
determined  that  free  board  and  1ml"- 

o 

ing  at  the  hands  of  its  former  owner, 
albeit  with  the  sacrifice  of  freedom, 
was  a  pleasanter  line  of  life  than 
liberty  and  a  precarious  commissariat, 
with  added  bodily  risks.  An  almost 
identical  episode  of  the  voluntary 
return  to  captivity  of  an  escaped 
monitor  has  been  reported  to  the 
writer  of  a  species  from  Borneo  by 
Dr.  G.  D.  Haviland. 

The  monitors,  as  a  rule,  are  not 

distinguished  for  brilliancy  of  colouring,  shades  and  mottlings  of  brown  or  black  being  usually 
dominant.  The  male  of  the  Australian  lace-lizard,  after 
newly  changing  its  coat,  is,  however,  an  exception.  In 
addition  to  the  highly  ornate  lace-like  reticulated  pattern 
of  its  skin-markings,  previously  referred  to,  the  throat  of  the 
animal  is  resplendent  with  mingled  tints  of  sky-blue  and 
lemon-yellow.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  that  its 
natural  surroundings  and  the  ardent  rays  of  a  sub-tropical 
sun  are  requisite  to  bring  these  brighter  tints  to  their  full 
development.  Examples  kept  in  close  confinement  in  the 
London  Zoological  Gardens  yield  little  or  no  indication  of 
their  colour  potentialities. 

While  the  Monitor  Family  is  not  represented  on  the 
American  Continent,  we  find  there  another  group  of  lizards 
whose  members  are  of  considerable  size,  and  agree  in  their 
carnivorous  propensities  and  general  habits  in  a  marked  manner  with  the  Monitors.  These 
are  the  "GREAVED"  LI/.AKDS,  named  with  reference  to  the  peculiar  skin-folding  on  their 
legs.  One  of  the  largest  and  most  familiarly  known  representatives  of  this  group  is  the 
TEGL'EXlX,  or  DIAMOND-LIZARD,  indigenous  to  the  greater  portion  of  tropical  South  America, 
and  also  to  the  West  Indies.  This  lizard  attains  to  a  total  length  of  a  yard  or  more, 

and  is  of  a  robust  and 
thick-set  build,  with  the 
hind  limbs  much  longer  and 
stouter  than  the  front  ones. 
The  colour  of  the  tcguexin  is 
also  notable,  the  ground-tint 
being  olive  or  tawny  yellow, 
upon  which  are  superimposed 
black  bands  and  markings 
which  for  the  most  part  take 
a  transverse  direction.  Like 
the  Monitors,  the  tuguexin 
in  captivity  exhibits  a  sulky 
and  aggressi\e  disposition, 


i,   K.   C.    .1lkin,,n 

SMALL    VIVIPAROUS    LIZARD 

•:   hcathi  and  cvmmtni  in  the  South  of 
England 


- 

fktli  » 


WALL-LIZARD 

Tkn  ifeciti  ii  farniularli  abundant  in  Italy 


LIZARDS 


177 


Ph,, 


A  rare  species  from  the  Fiji  Islands,      Male  to  the  right ;  female  -without  bands  to  the 
left.      The  example  crouching  between  them  is  a  bearded  lizard 

and    cannot    be  safely  kept    in  company  with  other   less 
powerful  species. 

The  attribute  of  bipedal  locomotion  is  possessed  by  the 
tcguexin.  That  this  singular  method  of  progression  was  an 
accomplishment  possessed  by  one  of  the  larger  tropical 
American  lizards  was  first  reported  to  the  writer  from 
Trinidad.  Some  species  of  iguana  was,  in  the  first  instance, 
anticipated  to  be  the  acrobatic  performer.  Several  ex- 
amples of  this  family  group  were  accordingly  put  through 
their  paces  at  the  Zoo,  to  ascertain  if  they  could  lay  claim 
to  the  distinction.  None  of  the  iguanas  available,  however, 
rose  (on  their  hind  legs)  to  the  occasion,  and  it  was  only 
on  experimenting,  as  a  dcrnttrc  rcssoitrce,  with  the  teguexin 
that  a  successful  demonstration  was  accomplished.  This 
lizard  was  found,  in  fact,  to  run  bipedally  more  freely  and  persistently,  when  sufficient  space 
was  allotted  it,  than  the  Agamas.  It  seems  singular  that  this  bipedal  power  of  locomotion 
should  have  so  long  remained  undiscovered,  and  yet  is  possessed  by  lizards  which  have  for  a 

number  of  years    been  the  denizens   of  many 

""^Hf^^^fl  zoological      gardens     and     other     menageries. 

The  fact  that  a  comparatively  large  level  area 
^K  is   a  •«'«*  qua   "0"    for  the    exhibition    of  this 

JB£.  phenomenon  affords  no  doubt  the  explanation 

-'—  of  this  anomaly ;    but  the  anomaly  itself  at  the 

^  "     fPHHF*  same  time  serves  to  accentuate  the  desirability, 

^WjB»!Sy>^  'n  l^e  '"terests  of  both  science  and  the  animals' 

comfort,  that  exists  for  providing  them  in  cap- 
tivity with  a  more  liberal  and  reasonably  sufficient 
space  for  their  indulgence  in  those  methods  of 
locomotion  that  are  natural  to  them  in  their 
native  land. 

ph.,.  h  tc.  s.,v:i;,.K,n,,  F.Z.S.  (  The  Greaved  Lizard  Family  includes  some- 

SOUTH   AFRICAN   GIRDLED  LIZARD        what   over   one    hundred    species.      While  the 

Remarkable  for  ,he  sp.ny  armature,  vhich  is  arranged  , n  concentric       maJOrity    agree    with    the     tegliexill    in     the    pOS- 

sir<U"  session  of  well-developed  limbs,  there  are  a  few 


178      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


MHU  h  If.  ?.  D**J»,  f.Z.S. 

ARIZONA    HELODERM    (POISONOUS    LIZARD) 

In  the  waned  texture  tj  in  ikin-turfacc  tlie  keloderm  Jijferi  conificuously  from  other 

lixardi 


retrograde  forms  in  which  the  hinder 
limbs  are  entirely  absent  or  the  front 
ones  reduced  to  mere  stumps.  These 
exceptional  instances  pave  the  way  t<> 
the  family  of  the  Amphisbaenas,  in 
which  such  or  a  still  lower  pha-e 
of  limb  development  represents  the 
normal  condition.  The  Amphisbaenas 
are  remarkable  for  their  worm-like  re- 
semblance, and  for  the  circumstar. 
that  they  live  like  earth-worms  in  bur- 
rows, that  their  eyes  are  function' 
(being  concealed  beneath  the  skin), 
and  that  they  are  without  ears.  Other 
details  of  structure  indicate  a  ni;»t 
rudimentary  condition  of  develop- 
ment, and  they  consequently  rank  as 
the  lowest  group  in  the  Li/.anl  series. 
Another  peculiarity  of  the  Amphisba;nas  is  that,  in  place  of  scales,  the  skin  of  the  body  is 
divided  into  square  segments,  which  form  symmetrical  rings  like  those  of  worms.  In  addition 
to  this,  these  retrograde  lizards  possess  the  worm-like  faculty  of  being  able  to  move  backwards 
and  forwards  in  their  burrows  svith  equal  facility.  It  is  from  this  peculiar  property  that  their 
title  of  Amphisbsna,  signifying  "  moving  both  ways,"  is  derived.  The  representatives  of  this 
family,  including  between  sixty  and  seventy  species,  are  widely  distributed,  being  found  in 
America,  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  and  also  European  countries  that  border  the  Mediterranean 

While  the  Teguexins  present  resemblances  in  one  direction  with  the  Amphisba-nas,  or 
Worm-like  Lizards,  the  higher  or  Monitor-like  forms  have  much  in  common  with  the  Typical 
or  True  Lizards,  of  which  two  small  but  well-known  species  —  the  SAND-  and  YivirAKoi/s 
LIZARD  —  are  indigenous  to  the  British  Isles.  All  the  members  of  the  True  Lizards,  num- 
bering some  hundred  species,  are  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World,  becoming  scarce,  however. 
towards  the  far  east  of  the  Asiatic  Continent.  All  possess  shapely  bodies  and  well-developed 
limbs  with  five-toed  feet,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  extreme  activity  of  their  movements, 
and  in  many  cases  brilliant  colouring. 
The  varying  individual  shades  of 
the  GREEN  LIZARD'S  brilliant  emerald 
body  are  almost  infinite,  no  two  being 
quite  precisely  alike  in  this  respect. 
In  some  a  yellower,  in  others  a  bluer 
green  predominates,  while  the  females 
and  young  arc  more  or  less  mottled 
or  striped  with  brown.  The  under 
surface  of  the  body  is  usually  a  more 
or  less  bright  yellow,  and  the  throat, 
in  the  males  more  particularly,  at  the 
breeding-season  is  frequently  brilliant 
blue.  The  more  conspicuous  colour 
differences  exhibited  by  this  li/aul 
are,  however,  intimately  associated 

with  the  local  habitat  of  the  particular  fluit  h  Slh.,j,,~p>»,..  c.. 

race.    Those  indigenous  to  Spain  and  WHITE  MONITOR 

Portugal,  for  example,  are  more  or 

„  namrntcd  with  ocellatcd  spots  TU,  •*/  «*«  <"'<J  'f'"'  "tf"  "  *•  *"J  -  '*'*  '"  *•'*'*  "  '*'  "" 


LIZARDS 


179 


along  the  sides  of  the  head  and  body, 
while  those  peculiar  to  Eastern  Europe 
and  Asia  Minor  are,  in  the  young  con- 
dition more  particularly,  marked  with 
longitudinal  streaks,  but  their  throat,  is 
never  blue. 

The  green  lizard  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  its  tribe,  and,  although 
not  indigenous  to  Great  Britain,  is  com- 
mon in  the  Channel  Islands.  In  Jersey, 
more  especially  during  the  summer 
months,  it  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
of  the  "  common  objects  of  the  country," 
as  it  darts  in  and  out  of  the  hedge- 
rows after  flies  and  other  insects,  or 
basks  in  the  bright  sunshine  on  some 
stone  wall,  with  its  emerald-green  body 
flattened  out  in  order  to  absorb  the 


J 


/>*««  ti  H,  G.   f.   Spurrill,  EJ?.]  [£< 

GREEN    LIZARD 

The  tail  of  the  green  lizard  is  brittle,  and  breaks  off  in  the  hand  if  tht 
animal  is  held  up  by  it.      A  neiv  tail  grows  from  the  fractured  joint  in  count 

greatest  possible  amount  of  heat.     As          " 

the  colder  autumn  days  advance  this  lizard  is  rarely  visible,  and  it  finally  retires  into  some 
rocky  cleft  or  burrow  in  the  hedge-bank,  and  is  no  more  seen  until  the  return  of  spring. 
Geen  lizards,  liberated  in  suitably  mild  spots  in  the  South  of  England,  have  been  known  to 
thrive  for  brief  periods,  but  succumb  to  the  cold  of  an  extra-severe  winter. 

The  largest  representatives  of  the  green  lizard  are  those  inhabiting  Eastern  Europe 
and  Asia  Minor,  where  in  size  and  colour  they  almost  imperceptibly  merge  into  the 
PEARLY  or  OCELLATED  LIZARD.  This  very  handsome  species,  which,  in  company  with 
examples  of  the  green  lizard,  is  frequently  imported  by  London  dealers,  ranges  from 
1 6  inches  to  close  upon  2  feet  in  length.  In  form  it  is  stouter  and  more  robust  than 
a  typical  green  lizard,  the  head  in  the  old  males  more  particularly  being  exceptionally 
massive.  Whatever  may  be  lacking  in  grace  of  form  is,  however,  fully  compensated 

for  by  brilliancy  of  colouring, 
no  other  lizard,  in  fact,  out- 
rivalling  it  in  this  respect.  To 
the  brilliant  shagreen- 
patterned  emerald-green  hues 
of  the  Jersey  species  it  has 
superadded  along  its  sides 
eye-like  spots  of  brilliant  tur- 
quoise or  ultra-marine,  with 
dark  brown  or  black  encir- 
cling lines.  In  the  males  the 
green  ground-colour  has  a 
more  distinctly  golden  hue, 
while  in  the  young  indi- 
viduals the  body  is  more 
usually  olive-colour,  dotted 
throughout  with  whitish  or 
pearly-blue,  black-edged 
spots.  This  beautiful  lizard 

OCELLATED   LIZARDS   AT    HOME  is      unfortunately     somewhat 

.       irascible   in   temper,  and  will 

The  most  brilliantly  coloured  of  hijing  li-zards.      The  body  ts  bright  emerald-green^  decorated 

on  the  sides -with  azure-blue  sfots  not    3S    a    rule     allow     itself    tO 


l8o      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


be  handled  as  freely  as  the  majority  of  the  members  of  its  tribe ;  when  biting,  moreover, 
it  has  a  tendency  to  fasten  itself  upon  the  object  seized  with  bulldog-like  tenacity,  a  grip 
from  a  powerful-jawed  old  male  being  a  somewhat  unpleasant  experience.  In  addition  to 
insects  the  ocellated  lizard  will  prey  upon  any  other  small  animals  it  can  overpower,  including 
the  members  of  its  own  species;  it  is  consequently  not  safe  to  entrust  it  in  the  company  of 
other  lizards  of  less  size  and  strength. 

The  Skink  Family,  which  next  invites  attention,  contains  no  less  than  400  known  spe. 
and,  climatic  conditions  being   favourable,  enjoys  an  almost   cosmopolitan  distribution      The 
majority  of  its  members  have  stoutish  cylindrical  bodies,  with  relatively  short  limbs  and  tail; 
the  legs  are  sometimes  reduced  to  two  only,  or  altogether  aborted,  giving  the  animal  a  snake- 
like  form. 

The  COMMON  or  "  MEDICINAL"  SKINK  —  so  called  since  it  was  regarded  in  the  Middle  A 
as  an  infallible  medicinal  nostrum  —  is  an  inhabitant  of  North  Africa,  and  notable  for  it- 
adaptation  to  a  sand-burrowing  existence.  The  body  is  short,  cylindrical,  exceedingly  smooth 
through  the  close  apposition  of  the  minute  surface-scales,  and  sharply  conical  at  each  extremity. 
The  well-developed  toes  of  all  four  feet  are  flattened  and  serrated  at  their  edges  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  constitute  most  effective  burrowing-tools  in  the  loose  sand  these  lizards 
frequent.  The  length  of  this  skink  rarely  exceeds  3  or  4  inches.  Its  colour  is  rather 

exceptional  for  a  lizard,  but  at  the  same  time  in   keep- 
ing with  its  predominating   subterranean  habits.      The 
ground-tint  in  the  living  examples  in  the  writer's  posses- 
sion, one  of  which  is  photographed  on   page  570,  was  a 
light   yellowish-white,  like   that  of  old    polished    ivory, 
with  here  and    there  a   pale  flesh-pink  tinge.     On    the 
under-surface  this  light    tint  was    persistent,  while    the 
back  was  traversed  by  some  twelve  broadish  bands  of 
pale  slate-grey.     The  skink  does  not,  like  the  mole  and 
the    Amphisbaenas,  obtain    its    food    from  subterranean 
sources.     It  comes  out  to  bask  on  the  surface 
of  the  sand  when  the  sun  is  at    its    height, 
and    keeps    a    brisk    look-out    for    flies    or 
other  insects,  which,  if  they  approach  suffi- 
ciently near,  are  pounced  upon  with  remark- 
able agility.     Should  the  sky  become  ovei  cast 

^^^  ^f  or  any  cause    for  alarm    manifest    itself,  the 

skink  disappears  beneath  the  sand  as  the  nigh 
by  magic,  not  infrequently  burrowing  down  to 
a  depth  of  several  feet.  Kven  at  the  present 
day  the  skink  is  esteemed  by  the  Arabs  b»th 
for  medicine  and  food,  and  in  the  latter  associa- 
tion, well  broiled,  has  won  the  commendation 
of  Furopean  palates. 

One  of  the  most  bizarre  members  of  the 
Skink   Family  hails  from   Australia,  \\ln-re  it 

is  known  as  the  STUMP-TAILED  I.I/\KI>.    The 

most  remarkable  feature  in  this  form  is  the 
shortness  and  roundness  of  the  caudal  appen- 
dage, the  contour  and  proportions  of  which, 

tt~K.ni.  r./.J.  in  fact,  so  nearly  correspond  with  those  of  the 

RONTGEN    RAY   PHOTOGRAPH   OF  Yicad  that  it  was  originally  described   by   its 

OCELLATED   LIZAR  discoverer, Captain  William  Dampicr,  just  over 

Tk4  rtmarkatll  llltrtk  and  iltnjtrneil  c/  ikl  honn  of  Inl  kind  flit  urt  . 

•wtii  Muuraud  by  tit,,  fiui^rtfk  three  centimes  ago, as  a  double-headed  animal. 


LIZARDS 


181 


To  quote  his  own  quaint  de- 
saw  here  [Sharks'  Bay]  included 
shape  and  size  with  other  guanos, 
remarkable  particulars,  for  these 
and  had  no  tail,  and  at  the 
they  had  a  stump  of  a  tail  which 
not  really,  such  being  without 
seemed  by  this  means  to  have 
A  specimen  of  the  stump- 
at  the  Regent's  Park  Gardens, 
tunity  for  its  comparison  in  the 
Fine  specimens  of  the  stump- 
10  inches  in  length,  and  are 
however,  being  very  small  and 
is  covered  with  large,  over- 
tion  with  its  customarily  dark 


Flat,  t>y  If.  Savill.-Kint,  F.2.4., 
Milford-on-Sia 

COMMON    SKINK 

Lives  and  burrows  in  the  sand,  coming 
out  ivhen  the  sun  shines 


scription  :  "The  land  animals  we 

a  sort  of  guanos  of  the  same 
but  differing  from  them  in  three 
had  a  larger  and  uglier  head, 
rump,  instead  of  a  tail  there, 
appeared  like  another  head,  but 
mouth  or  eyes;  yet  this  creature 
a  head  at  each  end." 
tailed  lizard  is  usually  on  view 
and  will  afford  visitors  an  oppor- 
flesh  with  Dampier's  description, 
tail  will  measure  as  much  as 
thick  in  proportion,  the  legs, 
weak.  The  surface  of  the  back 
lapping  scales,  that,  in  conjunc- 
brown  or  blackish  hue,  convey 
a  long,  imbricated  fir-cone.  On 


to  it  a  marked  resemblance  to 

the  under-surfacc  the  scales  are  in  comparison  very  small ;   the  colouring  in  this  region  is  also 

usually  light  grey  or  yellow,  variegated  with  darker  reticulations. 

Stump-tails  make  most  good-natured  and  grotesque  household  pets.  Of  two  examples 
which  were  for  some  years  in  the  writer's  possession  a  characteristic  photograph  is  reproduced 
below.  When  basking  in  the  sun,  the  tail  often  becomes  distended  to  enormous  proportions. 
The  internal  substance  of  this  abnormally  dilated  organ  consists  chiefly  of  fatty  tissue,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  it  fulfils  the  r61e  of  a  reservoir  for  the  storage  of  nutrient  and  heating 
materials,  to  be  drawn  upon  during  hibernation.  The  winter  months  in  the  southern  districts 
of  Western  Australia  are  cold,  and  this  lizard,  in  common  with  other  local  species,  retires 
during  that  season  into  the  sheltering  recess  of  a  hollow  tree-stump  or  rock-crevice  until  the 
sun  is  again  in  the  ascendant.  The  stump-tail  is  practically  omnivorous  in  its  habits.  In 
captivity  fruit,  and  more  especially  bananas,  constitute  a  favourite  diet,  but  it  will  also  greedily 
devour  worms,  beetles,  and  garden-snails,  and  may  consequently  be  turned  to  good  account  as 
a  destroyer  of  garden-pests. 

Of  other  Australian  members  of  the  Skink  Family,  the  GREAT  CVCLODUS,  or  BLUE-TONGUED 
LI/.ARD,  may  be  mentioned.  This  species,  which  is  about  18  inches  long,  presents  no  abnormal 
development  of  head  or  tail,  as  in  the  form  last  described.  The  body  is  smooth  and  sub-cylindrical, 
and  with  its  closely  set  scales  resembles  that  of  a  snake.  The  dominant  colour  is  a  soft 
steel  or  silvery  grey,  variegated  with  darker  or  lighter  cross-bands  and  reticulations  that  are 
most  strongly  marked  on  the  sides;  the  under-surface,  by  way  of  contrast,  is  most  usually  pale 


;•>,.„  i,  II  .  Savtllt-K 


AUSTRALIAN    STUMP-TAILED   LIZARDS 

Tiuo  of  the  author's  household  pets 


I«2      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF   THE    WORLD 


nl.  F.Z.S.] 

BLUE-TONGUED    LIZARDS 

A  female  wtik  her  family  of  rwclvc 


salmon-pink.  '1  he  tongue  of 
tills  lizard,  which  gives  to  it 
its  popular  title,  is  somewhat 
remarkable.  It  is  large  ;m<l 
flat,  and  of  a  bright  blue  tint, 
n-M-mbling  nothing  so  much 
as  a  piece  of  blue  llannel. 
The  animal,  as  it  moves  about, 
is  in  the  habit  of  constantly 
protruding  and  retracting  its 
tongue,  which  consequently 
constitutes  a  very  conspicuous 
object.  In  common  with  the 
majority  of  its  allies,  the  blue- 
tongued  lizard  is  viviparous; 
but  while  the  stump-tail  only 
produces  one  at  a  time,  which 
is  nearly  half  as  large  as  the 
parent,  the  present  form  gives 
birth  to  as  many  as  ten  or 
twelve.  An  example  in  the  writer's  possession  on  one  occasion  presented  him  with  a  litter 
embracing  the  larger  number,  and  afforded  the  material  for  the  photograph  here  reproduced 

As  a  contrast  to  the  two  preceding  forms,  the  SlMNK-TAll.Kl)  LI/ARDS,  with  their  short,  tlat, 
spiky  tails,  may  be  cited  as  a  conclusion  to  this  notice  of  the  Skink  Family.  There  are 
nine  known  members  of  the  same  genus,  all  inhabitants  of  Australia.  The  lower  of  the  two 
forms  here  figured  is  especially  abundant  on  one  island  of  the  Abrolhos  group,  off  the 
Western  Australian  coast.  This  example  is  represented  at  about  two-thirds  of  its  natural 
size.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  an  allied  but  considerably  larger  species  monopolises 
a  neighbouring  island  of  the  same  group,  the  two  species  not  intermingling:  probably 
the  larger  one  would  prey  on  the  smaller.  The  largest  member  of  the  genus,  known 
as  CUNNINGHAM'S  SPINE-TAIL,  of  a  uniform  black  hue,  peppered  white,  is  not  infrequently 
brought  to  Europe,  and  two  examples  which  were  for  some  years  in  the  writer's  possession  bred 
regularly,  producing  eight 
or  ten  young  at  a  time 
for  several  consecutive  years. 
The  fact  that  these  lizards 
enjoyed  full  liberty  in  a 
heated  greenhouse,  •  with  a 
temperature  and  surrounding 
conditions  closely  identical 
with  those  to  which  they 
were  naturally  accustomed.no 
doubt  contributed  extensively 
to  their  fertility. 

With  this  group  we  are 
compelled  by  lack  of  space 
to  close  our  account  of  the 
true  lizards,  hut  the  reader 
must  understand  that  only  a 

very  few  out  of  an  enormous          ,*.,.,,.., ^  ^ 

number  have  been  mentioned  SPINE-TA!  u  i>    II/\RDS,   WKSTKRN   AUSTRALIA 

•*'  a"'  Thru  lltj'Ji  jri  eitenltil.'tf  vr^ujr.dn  in  tkt'r 


CHAPTER    IV 

CHAMELEONS     TUATERA 


CHAM.ELEONS 


THE  CHAM.ELEONS  differ  in  so  many 
important  structural  points  from  the 
ordinary  lizards  that  they  are  usually 
regarded  now  by  scientists  as  a  distinct  reptilian 
sub-order.  The  essential  characters,  externally 
recognisable,  that  serve  to  distinguish  the  chamas- 
leons  are :  —  Firstly,  the  extraordinary  develop- 
ment of  their  worm-like  extensile  tongue,  the  tip 
of  it  club-shaped  and  highly  viscous,  and  the 
shaft  cylindrical  and  as  elastic  in  texture  as  india- 
rubber.  Adapted  for  the  special  object  of  catch- 
ing flies,  this  organ  can  be  projected  from  the 
mouth  to  a  distance  of  6  or  8  inches  or  more 
with  lightning-like  rapidity,  and  rarely  misses  its 
quarry.  Comparing  small  things  with  great, 
the  chamasleon's  tongue  and  its  action  might  be 
likened  to  a  schoolboy's  popgun,  having  its  pellet 
secured  to  the  barrel  by  a  long  elastic  ligament. 
Presuming  further  that  the  pellet  is  covered 
with  a  viscid  secretion  such  as  bird-lime,  and 
that  the  object  shot  at  is  hit  and  brought  back 
to  the  shooter's  pocket  by  virtue  of  the  liga- 
ment's intrinsic  elasticity,  we  have  an  almost 
veritable  replica  of  the  chamaeleon's  fly-catching 
apparatus.  The  second  remarkable  structural 
peculiarity  of  the  chamasleon  is  the  independent 
relationship  of  the  two  eyes.  The  eyes  them- 
selves are  unlike  those  of  any  other  lizards ;  they 
are  large, prominent, skin-covered  cones, perforated 
only  at  their  extreme  apex  for  the  minute  pupil- 
opening:  while  one  eye  may  be  fixed  on  an 
object  in  front  of  it,  the  other  may  be  rolling 
around  in  search  of  a  second  quarry.  This 
independent  capacity  of  vision,  while  peculiar 
among  reptiles  to  the  chama'leon,  is  common  to 
many  fishes,  such  as  blennies  and  flat-fishes.  A 
third  anomaly  in  the  chameleon's  structure  is 
the  character  of  the  feet ;  these  resemble  those 
of  a  parrot,  the  toes  being  bound  together  in 
two  opposable  bundles.  In  the  fore  foot  the 
inner  bundle  contains  three  and  the  outer  one 
two  toes  only,  while  in  the  hind  foot  the  order 


that  ty  W.  Savilli-Kiia,  F.Z.S.] 

CHAMELEONS 


[Milfard-en-Sia 

ASLEEP 


The  tail  of  the  sleeping  cham<eleon  is  frequently  coiled  spirally  likt 
the  proboscis  of  a  butterfly 


b,  W.  S*viU,-Ktnt,  f.Z.S  ]  [.Vi.>J-c 

A    CHAMELEON    IN    A    RAGE 

Puffin?  and  hisstng  at  an  approaching  intrudtr 


184      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


of  their  amalgamation  is  precisely  reversed.  In  either  case  these  feet  subserve,  as  in  parrots 
and  other  pcrching-birds,  as  most  effective  organs  for  maintaining  a  close  grip  upon  the  tree- 
branches  among  which  they  habitually  live.  The  tail  of  the  chamaclcon  is,  finally,  highly 
prehensile,  and,  as  with  the  Xew  World  monkeys,  constitutes  a  veritable  fifth  hand,  wherewith 
to  ensure  it  against  falling  off  its  ;;eich. 

The  colour-changing  properties  of  the  chameleon  have  been  the  subject  of  enthusiastic 
but  in  many  instances  exaggerated  descriptions  from  the  earliest  times.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
there  are  other  lizard  species  which  share  this  kaleidoscopic  property  to  an  equal  or  even 
greater  degree.  The  Indian  tree-geckos,  referred  to  on  a  previous  page,  as  also  the  calotes 
from  the  same  region,  are  cases  in  point.  Chameleons  are  undoubtedly  possessed  of  marvellous 
colour-changing  faculties,  and  it  would  appear  to  be  scarcely  in  all  instances,  as  is  more 
usually  represented,  a  case  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  tints  of  their  environment.  The 
assumption  of  leaf-green,  grey,  brown,  reddish,  or  yellowish  tints,  in  accordance  with  their 
surroundings,  is  the  ordinary  record.  Some  examples  which  formed  the  subjects  of  the  writer's 
experiments  exhibited,  however,  interesting  deviations  from  the  beaten  track.  Male  individuals, 
in  particular,  were  observed  to  assume  tints  and  decorative  patterns  that  rendered  them 
remarkably  conspicuous  objects,  in  spite  of  their  leafy  environment.  The  normal  ground- 
colour of  these  specimens  in 
full  daylight  was  so  dark  a 
green  that  it  might  be  almost 
characterised  as  black.  Upon 
this  were  superimposed  lines 
and  spottings  of  strongly  con- 
trasting tints  The  more 
dominant  of  these  was  a  bril- 
liant orange,  that  was  distri- 
buted in  bold  lines  along 
the  head  and  cheeks,  and 
formed  a  radiating  pattern  on 
the  skin-covered  eye-cones. 
The  same  colour  formed  some- 
what broken-up  bars  acn>,s 
all  four  limbs,  and  was  dis- 
persed in  bold  spots  over  the 
entire  remaining  body-sur- 
face: along  the  tail  these  spots  were  concentrated  in  threes,  giving  it  a  semi-barred  appearance. 
All  among  these  orange  limb-  and  body-spottings  were  distributed  a  secondary  series  of 
somewhat  smaller  spots,  the  tint  of  which  was  a  pale  but  very  brilliant  emerald-green  This 
chamaeleon  asleep  at  night  was  a  very  different  animal.  The  ground-colour  wa-  transformed 
from  almost  black  to  a  bright  grass-green.  The  orange  lines  became  lighter  in  colour  and 
broken  up  into  patches ;  many  of  the  orange  spots  on  the  body  disappeared,  but  those  remaining 
were  of  larger  size  and  concentrated  in  threes  in  two  lines  along  each  side,  these  triple  spots 
enclosing  centrally  a  larger  elongated  spot  or  patch  of  bright  pink  or  puce.  The  bright 
emerald-green  secondary  spots,  as  M-CII  in  daylight,  were  almost  white.  If  handled  during  the 
daytime,  the  chamieleon  was  wont  to  assume  a  colour  nearly  identical  with  his  night  garb; 
the  two  lines  of  pink  patches,  previously  invisible,  would  appear,  and,  while  the  orange  spotting 
remained  constant,  the  emerald-green  changed  to  lemon-yellow. 

A  chamselcon  in  a  rage  is  a  decidedly  grotesque  object.  The  back  is  arched,  the  body 
and  more  especially  the  throat-pouch  are  inflated  to  their  fullest  extent,  the  mouth  is  opened, 
the  eyes  roll,  and  the  creature  rocks  itself  to  and  fro  and  hisses  in  a  most  threatening  manner. 
\Vhcn,  as  often  happens,  it  also  simultaneously  sits  up  on  its  haunches,  the  effect  is  doubtless 
as  terrifying  as  it  is  intended  to  be  to  a  rival  chain. eleon  or  any  small  animal  which  may 


Phut  >,  II'.   Vj-.i  Ii-Kfiti,  F.Z.S. 

COMMON    CHAMELEON    OF    SOUTH    EUROPE    AND 
NORTH    AFRICA 

A  minute  cr  more  n  often  occupied  by  tke  chameleon  in  making  a  xngle  forward  step 


[ 


\' 


i.  1  ^^UlX  .     /  / 

/•*...  k,  «--.  S^ilU-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.]  [MiIf.rd-,»  S<a 

A    CHAMELEON    SHOOTING    OUT    ITS    TONGUE    TO    CAPTURE    A    FLY 

The  tongue  is  capable  of  extension  to  a  length  of  no  /ess  than  J  or  8  inches 


* 


fba.k,  C.  A/.  Mar 

A     PHOTOGRAPH     OF     A     CHAM/ELEON     IN     THE     ACT     OF     CATCHING     A     BUTTERFLY 

The  inflated  extremity  of  the  tongue  is  highly  plutinoui 

185 


186      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


venture  to  approach  it.  A  number  of  other  lizards,  including  tree-climbing  varieties,  were 
introduced  to  the  company  of  the  examples  under  observation,  and  until  friendly  acquaintance- 
ship had  been  established  their  advances  towards  the  chamaeleons  were  always  repelled. 

The  majority  of  the  chameleons  lay  eggs, 
but  a  smaller  number  produce  living  young,  as 
with  skinks  and  other  lizards.  Examples  of 
the  common  European  and  North  African 
species  kept  by  the  writer  excavated  holes 
in  the  earth,  in  which  they  laid  their  < 
and  then  carefully  covered  them  up  again. 
Unfortunately  these  eggs  were  not  fertilised. 
One  South  African  species  has  been  reported 

'^dH  5^          to  tne  Wfiter  as  being  in  the  habit  of  placing 

|^^^^^  and    separately  wrapping   and    fastening    up 

*  each  egg  as  deposited  in  the  leaves  of  the 

tree  in  which  it  resided.  While  Africa  and 
Madagascar  represent  the  head  centres  of 
distribution  of  the  fifty  odd  known  species 
of  chameleons,  they  enter  Europe  through 
the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  extend  east- 
ward to  Arabia,  India,  and  Ceylon.  The 
largest  known  variety,  which  inhabits  Mada- 
gascar, attains  a  length  of  15  inches;  the 


HUH  by   If.  Sjlflll-Xinl.  f  Z ,S  ] 

THE    TUATERA    OF    NEW    ZEALAND 

Belengi   to   an  ancient    reptile    race    of  which    it  it   the    only  living 
survivor 


smallest  pygmy  chamaeleon  of  the  Cape  scarcely  measures  2.]  inches. 

THE  TUATERA 

That  singular  reptile  found  on  certain  small  islands  lying  to  the  north-east  of  New  Zealand, 
and  known  as  the  TUATERA,  differs  in  so  many  structural  characters  from  all  other  li/ards 
that  it  is  assigned  to  a  separate  order.  Externally  the  tuatera  does  not  differ  materially  in 
form  from  an  ordinary  lizard.  The  skin,  however,  is  peculiar  for  its  leathery,  granulated,  and 
wrinkled  texture;  there  is  no  trace  of  external  ears;  the  eyes,  adapted  for  nocturnal  vision, 
have  in  daylight  vertical  pupils;  and  the  bases  of  the  toes  are  united  by  connecting  webs. 
The  deeper  internal  characteristics  include  the  possession  of  supplementary  so-called  abdominal 
ribs,  the  presence  of  which  are  readily  ap- 
prehended on  handling  the  living  animal. 
These  structures,  while  absent  in  ordinary 
lizards,  find  their  near  equivalent  in  the 
breastplate  of  tortoises  and  turtles.  The 
teeth  are  not  implanted  in  distinct  sockets, 
but  attached  to  the  summits  of  the  jaws, 
which  are  developed  in  a  beak-like  manner, 
and  in  older  individuals  fulfil,  after  the 
manner  of  a  beak,  the  functions  of  the  worn- 
out  incisor  teeth. 

Tuateras  have  been  exceedingly  scarce 
of  recent  years,  and  in  view  of  their  scientific 
interest,  and  the  risk  of  their  possible  ex- 


A    TAME TUATERA 

Ii  a  great  acjuialion  far  a  greenhouse,  feeding  en  slugi,  beetles,  and 
all  noxtout  insecft 


tinction, are  DOW  protected  by  the  New  Zealand 

Government.  Among  the  multitudinous  gifts  of  which  their  Royal  Highnesses  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Wales  were  recipients  during  their  recently  accomplished  world-embracing  tour,  a 
pair  of  living  tuatera  li/ards  formed  one  of  the  most  singular  ami  highly  prized  contributions 
accepted  from  the  loyal  New  Zeaiaiuicrs. 


*  ii  H.  G.  F,  Spurrell,  E/?.] 

DARK    GREEN    SNAKE 

A  native  of  Italy  and  other  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.      Accredited  "with  a  particularly  fierce  disposition 


[Eattbturn* 


CHAPTER     V 

SNAKES 

THE  characteristic  contour  of  a  snake's  body  is  too  familiar  to  need  elaborate  description ; 
its  leading  features  are,  in  fact,  so  nearly  approximated  by  certain  of  the  legless  lizards, 
previously  described,  that  the  distinctions  between  the  two  can  with  difficulty  be  defined. 
Many  of  the  snake-like  lizards,  including  the  Common  Blind-worm,  are  altogether  devoid  of 
external  limbs.  In  some  snakes,  on  the  other  hand,  and  notably  the  large  terrestrial  Pythons, 
a  spur-like  development  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  tail  represents  rudimentary  hind  legs. 
The  Snakes  agree  essentially  with  the  Lizards  in  the  character  of  their  scaly  covering,  the 
scales,  however,  being  larger  on  their  under-surface  and  specially  adapted,  as  in  the  legless 
lizards,  for  creeping  locomotion.  The  essential  distinctions  between  the  two  groups  have  to 
be  sought  in  the  structure  of  the  head.  The  most  notable  of  these,  as  it  obtains  in  the 
Snakes,  is  the  very  loose  manner  in  which  all  the  bones  connected  with  the  jaws  are  held 
together,  thus  providing  for  the  greatest  possible  distension  in  the  act  of  their  swallowing 
their  prey  whole,  as  is  the  custom  of  all  ordinary  snakes.  To  achieve  this  end,  the  two  halves 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  not  united  together  at  their  extremity  or  chin,  as  in  lizards,  but  are 
merely  connected  with  one  another  by  an  elastic  ligament.  In  most  snakes  the  bones  of 
the  upper  jaw  and  palate  are  also  attached  to  one  another  in  a  similar  way. 

The  eyes  of  a  snake  differ  in  a  very  marked  manner  from  those  of  ordinary  lizards. 
No  snake  possesses  movable  eyelids.  The  eye,  in  compensation,  is  protected  by  a  transparent 
horny  disk,  continuous  with  the  general  epidermis,  and  is  shed  with  it  when  the  snake  casts 
its  skin.  This  feature  imparts  to  snakes  that  fixed,  stony  expression  of  the  eyes  which 
undoubtedly  contributes  very  materially  towards  increasing  the  feeling  of  repulsion  with  which 
snakes  are  commonly  regarded.  A  few  exceptional  lizards,  such  as  the  Geckos,  have  a  similar 
eye-construction,  but  it  is  not  met  with  in  any  of  the  limbless  or  snake-like  forms.  No 
snakes,  again,  show  any  trace  of  external  ear-openings,  such  structures,  on  the  other  hand, 
being  distinctly  developed  in  almost  all  lizards.  The  head  itself  of  the  snake  is  never 
compressed  or  elevated,  as  in  most  lizards,  but  flattened  down  and  usually  wider  than  the 
body,  to  which,  however,  it  is  united  without  a  distinct  neck.  The  tongue  of  the  snake  is 
slender,  and  terminates  in  two  long,  thread-like  points;  basally  it  is  inserted  into  a  hollow 
sheath,  into  or  out  of  which  the  entire  organ  can  be  retracted  or  exserted  at  will.  The 
somewhat  uncanny,  flickering  action  with  which  a  snake,  while  moving,  displays  and  as  it 
were  feels  its  way  with  its  long,  forked  tongue  represents  another  element  which  adds  to  the 

187 


188      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS   OF    THE    WORLD 


disfavour  with  which  these  reptiles  are  commonly  regarded.     Among  the  uneducated  e\  on  at 
the  present  day  it  is  not  unusual  to  hear  the  tongue,  with  reference   to    its   peculiar    shape 
and    vibrating   action,  pronounced  to  be  the  seat  and  instrument  of  the    animal's    poison- 
properties.      The    swift,  silent,  stealth}',  gliding   motions    with    which,  apart    from    any    \isible 
organs  of  locomotion,  a  snake  slides,  as  it  were,  along  the  ground  and   over  all  obstacles  fill 
to  the  brink  the  measure  for  its  condemnation  in  the  estimation  of  all  but  the  snake-de\. 
or  the  naturalist. 

The  locomotion  of  the  snake  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
and  beautifully  contrived  phenomena  in  animal  mechanics.  The  peculiarly  jointed  and 
abnormally  mobiie  ribs  constitute  the  mystic  ttens  e.v  inacliina  by  which  the  reptile  accom- 
plishes its  migration.  These  ribs  articulate  in  pairs  by  a  single  mobile  head  with  their 
respective  segment  of  the  vertebral  column.  At  their  opposite  extremity  they  impinge 
on  and  are  in  muscular  connection  with  the  broad,  slightly  overlapping,  shield-like  scales 
which  clothe  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  The  rib-muscles,  contracting  in  rhythmical 
succession,  raise  the  free  overlapping  edges  of  the  shield-like  scales,  which,  striking  against  the 
ground  in  the  same  regular  order,  push  the  body  forward.  Adopting  an  easily  comprehensible 

simile,  the  snake's  body  is 
carried  along  the  ground  on 
the  same  principle  as  a  pad- 
dle-wheel steamer  is  pushed 
along  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  paddle-boards  in  the  i 
of  the  snake  being  affixed  to 
a  long,  narrow  plane  instead 
of  a  circular  wheel. 

The  poison-fangs  of 
snakes  are  highly  specialised 
structures,  and  their  presence 
or  otherwise  was  formerly 
considered  sufficiently  dis- 
tinctive for  the  separation 
of  these  reptiles  into  two 
sharply  ricfinednatural  series. 
More  n-ccnt  investigations 
have,  however,  shown  that 
such  a  system  of  classification  is  entirely  artificial,  both  venomous  and  harmless  sp, 
occurring  among  groups  which  are  related  to  one  another  by  essential  structural  characters. 
The  teeth  in  the  ordinary  or  harmless  snakes  are  usually  represented  by  two  rows  of  slender, 
recurved,  sharply  pointed  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  a  single  row  of  a  similar  character  in 
the  lower  one.  This  recurved  character  of  the  dentition  effectively  assists  the  snake  in  gorging 
its  quarry  whole,  nothing  once  seized  by  the  hook-like  teeth  having  a  chance  of  retreating. 
the  snake  itself  being  unable  to  eject  the  prey  upon  which  the  teeth  have  fastened.  Jn  the 
most  poisonous  series,  such  as  a  rattle-snake,  there  i>  but  a  single  row  of  recurved  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw,  and  these  are  the  equivalents  of  the  inner  set  of  the  harmless  species.  Among 
the  most  venomous  snakes  the  poison-fangs  are  tubular  in  character,  the  poison  being  received 
from  the  venom-glands  at  their  open  base,  and  discharged  ,U  the  apex.  In  other  forms  the  fang- 
have  grooved  channels  only  for  the  passage  of  the  virus,  while  in  the  other  species  there  ma\  be 
an  intermediate  condition.  In  all  cases  the  poison-secreting  glands  are  modifications  of  the 
ordinary  salivary  glands  of  other  vertebrate  animals.  They  are  situated,  one  on  e.u  h  side, 
immediately  below  and  behind  the  eyes,  and  are  in  some  instances  so  abnormally  developed 
as  to  extend  backwards  along  tin-  sides  of  the  body.  Special  muscles  envelop  these  glands. 
and  force  the  poison  into  the  hollow  base  of  the  fangs  when  the  mouth  is  opened  to  strike. 


DARK    GREEN    SNAKE 

Cloiely  allitd  to  the  rat-snake  of  Irdia^  and  prey  t  tn  a  simi/ar  manner  on  rarst  mt'it,  and  birdi 


I 


P *«/..  i>   Frtdl.   Dotunrr  <5r-  Sim]  [Wll/oi-i 

A    SMALL    BOA-CONSTRICTOR    SEIZING    AND    DEVOURING    A    RAT 

Illustrating  the  conscculi-v:  fhaics  of  seining,  s  rangling,  and  subsequently  gorging  the  prey,  as  practiud  by  the  largest  and  smallest  membtrt  • 

tht  class 

I89 


190      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Snakes,  like  lizards,  are  most  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  the  Indian  and  Malay  regions 
in  particular  being  richest  in  numbers  an;l  varieties.  The  British  Islands  support  but  three 
representatives  of  the  class  —  the  ADDKR,  the  COMMON  KINCKD  and  the  SMOOTH  SNAKES  —  this 
number,  by  a  coincidence,  being  identical  with  that  of  the  Lizard  Tribe  indigenous  to  the 
same  islands.  Many  of  the  smaller  species  are  little  over  I  foot  long,  while  the  huge  Pythons 
and  the  Anaconda  may  attain  to  or  exceed  30  feet.  Regarding  their  habits,  some  are  purely 
terrestrial,  frequenting  the  rocks  or  sandy  deserts,  or  even  burrowing  beneath  the  earths 
surface.  Others  are  essentially  arboreal,  many  amphibious,  and  some,  like  the  Turtles  among 
the  Chelonians,  entirely  marine.  As  with  the  Lizards,  the  majority  of  snakes  lay  eggs  enclosed 
within  a  white  leathery  shell,  while  with  a  considerable  number  the  young  are  brought  forth 
alive.  The  eggs,  deposited  in  the  earth,  sand,  or  among  vegetable  debris,  are  usually  left  to 
be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  In  the  case  of  the  Pythons,  however,  they  are  incubated 
by  the  parent. 

A  small  group  of  snakes  which  is  usually  placed  at  the  head  of  the  series  in  systematic 

classifications  share  the  sub- 
terranean habits  of  the 
Amphisbaenas  among  the 
Lizards;  and  the  eyes  1><  ing 
rudimentary  and  function  U>s, 
they  are  commonly  known  as 
HI.IND-SNAKKS.  A  structural 
peculiarity  which  separates 
these  singular  reptiles  from 
all  other  members  of  the 
Snake  Tribe  is  the  entire 
absence  of  teeth  from  either 
the  upper  or  Inner  jaw.  The 
food  of  the  blind-snakes 
consists  largely  of  ants  and 
the  larv;e  of  beetles  and 
other  insects  which  lead  a 
subterranean  life.  Although 
spending  the  greater  portion 
of  their  existence  under- 
ground, they  occasionally 
come  out  upon  the  surface, 
such  migrations  more  gener- 
ally taking  place  during 
showery  weather.  About  100  species  of  blind-snakes  are  known,  and  arc  mostly  confined  to 
tropical  countries.  One  small  worm-like  form  occurs  in  Greece  and  the  adjacent  islands,  its 
range  extending  through  a  considerable  area  of  South-western  Asia. 

The  steps  from  the  small  worm-like  Blind-snakes,  with  their  functionless  eyes  and  under- 
ground habits,  to  the  Boas  and  Pythons,  the  largest  and  most  highly  organised  members  of 
the  Serpent  Tribe,  would  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  altogether  unwarranted.  In  one  i >-<  mial 
character,  however,  they  agree  very  remarkably.  In  both  groups  the  bony  skeleton  exhibits 
a  far  more  generalised  structural  plan  than  in  any  of  the  succeeding  ones,  so  that  they  may  be 
regarded  as  more  nearly  resembling  the  primitive  stock  from  which  the  other  more  specialised 
kinds  —  such  as  the  Vipers,  with  their  death-dealing  poison-fangs  — have  been  evolved. 

ThePVTHO.vs  ami  BI  IAS,  or  B<  >A-O  >\>ruir  n  >i<^,  as  they  are  popularly  known, belong  entirely 
to  the  non-venomous  section  of  the  Snake  series.  The  teeth,  forming  two  rows  in  the  upper 
jaws,  gradually  decrease  in  si/.e  from  before  backwards,  and  none  of  them  are  grooved  or 
modified  in  the  form  of  poison-fangs.  The  body  is  usually  more  or  less  compressed,  and  the 


Hi.l»  t.  If.  ?.  Deni>,  F.Z.S.]  (R,g,*l',  Pirl 

BOA-CONSTRICTOR    READY    TO    STRIKE 

Tilt  nect,  thrmen  kack  in  one  or  more  loafs,  can  ke  projected,  ivitk  immenu  force  and  lightning- 
like  rapidity,  to  ttrtke  or  uize  an  intended  i-icttm. 


SNAKES 


191 


Mo.,  t)    D.  Ll  S«u,f\  [Miltnurl 

CARPET-SNAKE 

&  called  ivith  reference  to  the  'variegated  carpet-like  pattern  of  its  skin  ornamentation 


tailprehensile.  The  1  Vl'lCAL 
PYTHONS,  or  ROCK-SNAKES, 
as  they  are  called,  with  refer- 
ence to  their  rock-frequent- 
ing habits,  are  distributed 
throughout  South-eastern 
Asia,  Australia,  and  Central 
and  South  Africa. 

The  INDIAN  PYTHON, 
which  is  the  largest  Old 
World  representative  of  its 
race,  is  known  authentically 
to  attain  to  a  length  of 
30  feet,  and  in  the  largest 
specimens  the  spinal  column 
may  include  over  400  vertebr.ne.  In  common  with  other  members  of  its  family,  this  huge 
snake  kills  its  quarry  by  compression  or  strangulation,  throwing  around  it  successive  coils  of 
its  body,  which,  with  their  contraction,  crush  out  the  life  of  the  victim.  Trie  dispatched 
prey  is  then  swallowed  whole,  commencing  with  the  head.  The  previous  crushing  of  the 
bony  framework  greatly  assists  the  swallowing  process,  which  is  further  aided  by  the  snake 
pouring  over  the  body  of  its  victim  a  copious  discharge  of  saliva. 

The  extent  to  which  the  jaws  and  the  integument  of  the  body  generally  can  be  distended 
for  the  passage  and  reception  of  the  food  is  remarkable.  After  partaking  of  a  solid  meal 
in  this  fashion,  pythons  remain  sluggish  and  in  a  state  of  semi-torpor  for  several  days,  not 
reawakening  to  active  life,  in  fact,  until  the  digestion  of  the  food  has  been  accomplished.  As 
is  well  known,  these  and  other  snakes  can  exist  for  periods  of  many  months'  duration  between 
their  meals.  One  of  the  largest  Indian  pythons  by  no  means  contents  itself  with  such  small 
quarry  as  hares  and  rabbits  —  sheep,  young  calves,  and  some  of  the  smaller  deer  representing  its 
more  accustomed  food.  The  human  species  unarmed  is  as  weak  or  weaker  than  the  proverbial 
kitten,  pitted  against  the  hydraulic-press-like  embrace  of  these  monster  serpents;  and  many 
an  Indian  native,  and  more  rarely  the  white  man,  has  fallen  a  victim  to  their  attacks. 

The  RETICULATED  PYTHON,  so  called  on  account  of  the  bold  reticulated  pattern  of  the  skin- 
ornamentation,  may  equal,  if  not  exceed,  the  Indian  species  in  dimensions.  It  is  a  native 
of  Burma,  Siam,  and  the  Malay  region  generally,  and  is  recorded  as  occasionally  exceeding 
30  feet  in  length.  Examples  of  this  species,  including  one  over  2O  feet  long,  have  constituted 
leading  attractions  at  the  Reptile-house  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  for  many  years 
past.  The  gorgeous  prismatic  tints  that  play  upon  the  surface  markings  of  the  coils  of  these 

...  huge  snakes,  as  the 
sun  strikes  upon  them 
about  midday  in  their 
cages,  form  one  of  the 
most  wonderful  sights 
that  the  Gardens 
afford. 

The  African  Con- 
tinent also  produces 
its  large  species  of 
pythons.  One  of 
these,  attaining  to  a 

,  E.j.i  [Ea,i,.u,at         length   of   20   feet   or 

yESCULAPIAN    SNAKE  more,  reaches  itsmaxi- 

A  South  European  sfecies  -with  tree  climbing  habits  mum  On  the  WCStCOaSt, 


,  h,  H.  G   F.  SHI 


192       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


and  occurs  with  local  modifications  as  far  cast 
and  south    as  Natal.     In  the   latter  country 

it    is   most   familiarly   known    as    the    \\IAI. 

ROCK-SNAKE. 

Some  rather  singular  incidents  have  been 
recorded  illustrating  the  tenacity  with  which 
pythons  retain  hold  of  the  quarry  once  sei/ed, 
or,  more  correctly,  their  inability  to  release 
it.  At  the  Adelaide  Zoological  Gardens  a 
specimen,  when  absorbing  a  rabbit,  man,* 
to  entangle  its  teeth  in  a  corner  <>t 
blanket.  That  blanket  had  to  follow  the 
rodent  through  the  12-foot-long  python.  <  >n 
another  occasion  two  pythons,  a  (Jueenslander 
and  Afrikander,  happened  at  the  s.tim-  instant 
to  commandeer  respectively  the  head  and 
hindquarters  of  an  identical  rabbit.  Inch  by 
inch  the  portion  between  the  two  grew  smaller 
until  the  two  noses  met.  Theiv  was  no 
retreating  from  this  impasse,  and  the  mo- 
mentous question,  "  Shall  I  slay  my  brother 
boa?"  had  to  be  settled  affirmatively  by  one 
or  other  of  the  interested  parties  without 
further  parley.  The  somewhat  smaller  and 
weaker  individual  was  gradually  telescoped, 
and  in  due  time  assimilated.  The  absorber 
was  decidedly  poorly  and  "oft"  colour  "  for  a 
considerable  period  after  accomplishing  this 
cannibalistic  feat ;  it  ultimately  recovered  both 
its  appetite  and  its  prismatic  tints. 

The  TklT.  BOAS,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Pythons,  are  more  essentially  arboreal  in 
their  habits,  and.  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  species  found  in  Madagascar,  belong  to 
the  tropical  American  zoological  region.  The 
COMMON  BOA,  or  BOA-C-IINSTKICIOU,  which 
attains  to  a  length  of  12  or  14  feet  or  more, 
«  is  limited  in  its  distribution  to  South  America. 

The  colours  of  this  snake,  which  consist 
mainly  of  a  light  brown,  with  a  number  of 
dark  brown  cross-bars  on  the  back,  and  light 
centred,  dark  brown  spots  on  the  sides. 
so  nearly  agree  with  the  tint  of  the 
tree-branches  with  their  interlacing  shadows,  among  which  it  usually  lies  concealed,  that, 
notwithstanding  its  large  size,  it  readily  evades  detection,  and  is  unconsciously  approached  by 
the  animals  on  which  it  preys.  These,  in  adult  individuals,  may  be  represented  by  such 
large-sized  quarry  as  dogs,  and  even  deer;  while  smaller  examples  prey  largely  on  birds  and 
their  eggs,  and  the  numerous  rodents  with  which  the  tropical  American  forests  teem.  From 
observations  made  upon  this  species  in  captivity,  it  would  appear  that  the  eggs  are  usually 
hatched  within  the  parent's  body,  though  an  instance  has  been  recorded  in  which  both  , 
ana  young  were  produced  simultaneously. 

A  close  ally   of  the    typical  boas,   which    shares  with   them    a   tropical   South    Ameucan 


A    GROUP   OF    GARTER-SNAKES 

A  common  ifecict  viiict  colltat  ngattr  in  great  numbcri 


1'lwto  by   III,-  .Yi'ii' 


THE    WEST    AFRICAN     PYTHON. 
his  spit-mild  snake  is  said  to  grow  to  a  length  of  over  twenty  feet,  although  such  gums  are  only  occasionally  met  with. 


SNAKES 


193 


[  Fastbaurnt 


Fhoto  t;  d.  G.  F.  Sfurrtll,  Ej?.] 

LEOPARD-SNAKE 

A  harmless  and  beautifully  marked  species  inhabiting  Italy  and  Sicily 


habitat,  is  the  huge  ANACONDA,  or 
WATER-BOA,  of  Brazil  and  the  adja- 
cent countries.  This  animal,  which  is 
undoubtedly  the  largest  living  repre- 
sentative of  the  Serpent  Tribe,  attains 
a  length  little,  if  any,  short  of  40 
feet.  One  such  monster  was  specially 
referred  to  by  Dr.  Gardiner,  the 
botanist,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Brazil  " ; 
it  had  devoured  a  horse,  and  was 
found  dead,  entangled  in  the  branches 
of  a  tree  overhanging  a  river,  into 
which  it  had  been  carried  by  a  flood. 
Full-grown  cattle,  and  occasionally 
human  beings,  as  well  as  horses,  are 
alleged  to  fall  victims  to  the  destruc- 
tive prowess  of  this  gigantic  snake. 
The  anaconda  isessentiallyamphibious 
in  its  habits,  the  greater  part  of  its 
life  being  spent  in  the  water,  lying  in  wait,  in  the  quiet  lagoons  and  backwaters,  with  only 
its  head  above  the  surface,  and  prepared  to  seize 'any  unfortunate  animal  which  may  come  to 
the  brink  to  drink.  At  other  times  it  will  coil  itself  upon  the  trunks  and  larger  branches  of 
the  adjacent  trees,  and  from  that  point  of  vantage  will  dart  down  its  head,  with  sure  aim  and 
lightning  rapidity,  to  seize  any  suitable  quarry  which  may  pass  beneath.  In  some  parts  of 
South  America  where  the  rivers  dry  up  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  the  anaconda  is  recorded 
to  be  in  the  habit  of  burying  itself  in  the  mud  and  lying  torpid,  after  the  manner  of 
crocodiles,  until  the  return  of  the  rains.  The  ground-colour  of  the  anaconda  is  usually  greyish 
brown  or  olive  above,  the  back  being  ornamented  with  one  or  two  transversely  disposed  rows 
of  large,  rounded,  dark  brown  or  blackish  spots,  while  the  sides  are  decorated  with  more 
irregularly  scattered,  smaller,  eye-like  spots,  having  whitish  centres  and  dark  margins. 

An  interesting  little  group,  connecting  the  Boas  and  Pythons  with  the  Common  Snakes, 
is  that  of  the  so-called  SHIELD-TAILS,  or  EARTH-SNAKES,  of  India  and  Ceylon.     These  reptiles 

are  earth-burrowers,  like  the  Blind- 
snakes,  previously  referred  to,  but 
have  well-developed  eyes,  and  are 
further  distinguished  by  the  abruptly 
truncated  contour  of  their  posterior 
extremity,  which  may  be  either  a 
naked  disk  or  covered  with  keeled 
scales.  Their  bodies  are  cylindrical, 
with  the  scaly  covering  very  smooth 
and  polished,  the  scales  of  the  under- 
surface  being  but  little  larger  than 
theupperones  ;  the  jaws,  inconformity 
with  the  peculiar  modification  of  their 
skull,  arc  not  capable  of  wide  dis- 
tension. Seven  genera  and  a  large 
number  of  species  are  recognised,  some 

rh,t,  by  H.  G.  F.  s?urr,ii,  E,,.-]  [Ea,ib,u,n,  being  brilliantly  coloured   with  tints 

TESSELATED   SNAKE  of  red  or  yellow.     Their  main  diet  is 

A  European  sf>eciest  similar  in   si-ze  and  habits   to   the   British  ringed  snakr,  but 

more  handsomely  marked  ThcfamilyoftlieCOMMOXSXAKES 


194       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

includes  the  greater  number  of  species,  the  majority  of  the  most  venomous  as  well  as  harmless 
varieties  being  comprised  within  its  limits.  The  characters  that  are  made  the  basis  for 
separating  these  snakes  from  the  Boas  are  associated  with  the  structure  of  the  skull,  and  are 
not  therefore  readily  recognised  without  having  recourse  to  dissection.  It  will  suffice  to  mention 
that,  in  this  and  the  remaining  groups,  there  is  an  entire  absence  from  the  lower  jaw  of  the 
slender  supplementary  bone  known  as  the  "  coronoid,"  which  is  present  in  the  Boas  and 
Pythons.  From  succeeding  groups,  such  as  the  Viperine  series,  they  are  distinguished  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  upper  jaw  is  firmly  fixed  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  is  not  capable  of 
erection  in  a  vertical  plane,  or  like  the  lid  of  a  box,  as  obtains  with  the  Vipers. 

These  snakes  are  separated  into  secondary  groups  with  relation  to  the    structure  of  their 
teeth.     In  one  series  these  teeth  are  solid  throughout,  neither  grooved  nor  tubular ;  and  all 


IT  Hrmiiilt*  tf  itu  Una  J 


PINE-SNAKE 

A  trie-kaunnng  American  iftcili  -wit/i  vtry  bold  markings 

the  snakes  thus  characterised  are  harmless.  In  the  second  series  one  or  more  pairs  of  the 
hinder  upper  teeth  are  longitudinally  grooved,  and  act  as  poison-fangs;  they  are  consequently 
distinguished  as  the  "  back-fan ged  "  group.  In  the  third  series  the  front  teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw-bone  are  grooved,  and  constitute  the  poison-fangs,  and  they  are  known  as  the  "  fiont- 
fanged  "  group. 

To  the  first-mentioned  solid-toothed  anil  harmless  division  of  the  family  belongs  the 
BRITISH  RINGED  SNAKE  and  some  forty  other  allied  species  which  are  collectively  known  as 
W.VI  I.K-^v  \KKS,  with  reference  to  their  in  TC  or  U •><  pronounced  aquatic  habits.  The  rin 
snake  has  a  stoutish  cylindrical  body,  keeled  scales,  tl.it  head  covered  \\ith  regular  shields, 
wide  mouth-cleft,  and  mum-ion-,  teeth,  the  strongest  of  which  are  at  the  hinder  end  of 
the  jaw-bone.  The  colour  varies  somewhat,  being  usually  L;H •>  .  brown,  or  olive  above,  with 
d-irkcr  spots  or  narrow  tran-ver-e  bands;  the  unde,r-surface  is  mottled  black  and  white  or 
grey.  The  lip-shields  arc  white  or  yellowish,  with  black  dividing-lines.  The  neck  in  the 
ordinary  variety  is  usually  ornamented  with  a  yellow,  white,  or  orange  collar-like  patch, 


SNAKES 


195 


/  IMC  bj  Hinrj  Dixo"  &  Son]  [Albany  Strut,  N.  W. 

COBRA    (BACK   VIEW) 

Showing  the  remarkable  pattern  on  the  hack  of  the  neck,  'which  has 
given  rise  to  the  name  of  Spectacled  Snake 


behind  which  is  a  somewhat  broader  black  collar, 

which  is  produced  forwards  and  sub-divides  the 

yellow  one  in  the  centre  of  the  upper-surface. 

In  the  variety  of  the  ringed  snake  indigenous 

to  the  South  of  Europe  the  collar-like  markings 

may  be  altogether  absent,  or  reduced  to  a  small 

black    patch  on  each  side  of  the  nape  of  the 

neck.     The  maximum  length  of  the  ringed  snake 

is  some  6|  feet.     It  is  a  most  expert  swimmer, 

moving  swiftly  through  the  water  with    lateral 

undulations  of  its  body,  and  carrying  its  head 

and  neck  well   above  the  surface.     Frogs  con- 
stitute its  favourite  diet,  but  it  will  also  capture 

and  devour  fish,  mice,  and  young  birds. 

The  VIPERINE  and  TESSELATED  SNAKES, 

both  European  forms,  as  also  the  GARTER-  and 

MOCASSIN-SNAKES  of  North  America,  are  all 

closely  allied  in  structure  and  habits  to  the  familiar 

ringed  species.  The  second  British  species,  known 

as  the    SMOOTH    SNAKE,  belongs  to  the  same 

group,  but  is  more  terrestrial  in  its  habits  ;   while 

comparatively  rare  in  England,  and  limited  to 

the    southern    counties,    it    is    plentiful    on    the 

Continent.    The  INDIAN  RAT-SNAKE,  which  is 

almost  as  useful  as  the  domestic  cat  in  ridding 

dwellings   of  rats  and    mice,   is   another   repre- 
sentative of  the  solid-toothed  group.     This  group  also  includes  the  so-called  PlGMY  SNAKES, 

inhabiting  the  Malay  region,  whose  habits  are  mainly  arboreal.     They  are  the  most  diminutive 

members  of  their  order,  some  of  the  thirty  known  species  not  exceeding  I  foot  in  length. 

The  typical  TREE-SNAKES  of  the  Indian  and  Australian  region,  with  large  eyes,  somewhat 

compressed  bodies,  and 
colours  of  green  or  olive, 
in  harmonious  accord  with 
their  arboreal  surround- 
ings, also  belong  to  the 
solid-toothed  and  harmless 
section.  An  especially 
interesting  representative 
of  this  group  is  the  so- 
called  EGG-EATING  SNAKE 
of  South  Africa.  It  does 
not  exceed  2  feet  in 
length,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  arboreal  in  its  habits, 
and,  as  its  name  implies, 
would  appear  to  feed  ex- 
clusively on  eggs.  As  a 
structural  adaptation  for 
this  peculiar  habit,  the 

o  b,  If.  Smitli-Kint,  F.Z.S  }  (MilfirJ-,n-Sii 

spinous    processes    of    a 
QUEENSLAND   SEA-SNAKE  number   of  the   vertebrae 

Sea-wake*  have  compressed  taih^  'which  they  use  for  steering  pl'OJCCt      UltO      the      til  1*03.  t 


196      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


and  are  tipped  with  enamel,  thus  constituting  supplementary  throat-teeth.  Normally  this  snake 
subsists  on  the  eggs  of  the  smaller  birds,  but  when  short  of  this  supply  has  been  known  to 
leave  the  trees  and  rob  hen-roosts,  being  able,  notwithstanding  its  comparatively  small  size,  to 
dilate  its  mouth  and  throat  for  the  reception  of  a  hen's  egg.  The  egg  is  split  longitudinally 
by  the  action  of  the  throat-teeth,  the  contents  swallowed,  and  the  shell  ejected. 

The  second  or  "  back-fanged  "  group  includes  many  exceedingly  poisonous  species.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  INDIAN  WHIP-SNAKI  s  and  their  allies,  comprising  many  tree- 
frequenting  species,  closely  resembling  in  habits  and  colours  the  harmless  solid-toothed  tiee- 
snakes  of  the  preceding  section. 

It  is  among  the  third  or  "  front-fanged  "  group,  however,  that  the  most  venomous  species 
occur.  To  this  section  belongs  the  death-dealing  COBRA,  the  yet  more  formidable  II  \MADKY.\D, 
the  INDIAN  CRAITS,  the  EGYPTIAN  ASP,  and  the  AUSTRALIAN  HI.ACK  S.\ .\KKsand  ULATII-ADDLRS. 
The  COBRA-DE-CAPELLO,  HOODED,  or  SPECTACLED  SNAKE,  as  it  is  variously  known,  is  perhaps  the 
most  notoriously  familiar  example  of  its  section,  being  responsible  for  the  greater  moiety  of 
the  many  thousands  of  fatalities  that  annually  occur  among  the  natives  of  India  from  the 
bites  of  venomous  serpents.  The  crafts,  which  resemble  the  cobras,  but  do  not  posse--  .m 
erectile  hood,  are  accredited  a  second  position  in  death-dealing.  The  peculiar  feature  of  the 
erectile  hood  that  characterises  the  cobras  is  due  to  the  circumstance  that  a  certain  number 

of  the  ribs  in  this  region  are 
independently  movable,  and 
can  be  elevated  and  deprt 
at  will,  the  skin-fold  that 
overlies  them  being  loose  and 
elastic.  The  back  of  the  hood 
in  the  ordinary  Indian  cobra 
is  usually  ornamented  with 
two  eye-like  spots,  connected 
with  a  loop-like  band,  which 
communicate  to  the  complete 
pattern  the  fancied  resem- 
blance to  a  pair  of  sp<  eta 
whence  it  has  derived  its  ap- 
pellation of  Spectacled  Snake. 
Individuals  vary,  however, 
very  considerably  in  this  matter  of  colour-markings;  in  some  instano  s  a  single  eve-like  spot  is 
alone  developed,  while  in  others  it  may  be  entirely  absent.  The  COMMON  COIIKA  grows  to  a 
length  of  6  or  7  feet,  dimensions  greatly  exceeded  by  the  GIANT  CO|;R.\,  or  HAMADRYAD,  a 
fortunately  rarer  form  more  exclusively  confined  to  jungle  and  forest  districts.  This  species 
may  attain  to  a  length  of  13  feet  or  more,  and  on  account  of  its  deadly  bite  and  fiercely 
aggressive  disposition  is  much  feared  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  it  inhabits,  which  include 
not  only  India,  but  Burma,  Siam,  and  the  Malay  region.  This  giant  cobra  preys  almost 
exclusively  on  smaller  snakes,  frequently  including  the  common  cobra. 

A  third  species  of  cobra,  known  as  the  HA.IK,  or  Sri  i  I  INC-SNAKE,  inhabits  Africa,  from 
Egypt   as  far    south    as    Natal.       It  is   perhaps   the    fiercest    member    of   the    group,    turning 
readily  upon    its   pursuers,   or  even  commencing  the  attack.     It  also  possesses  the  -"intvvh.it 
remarkable  and  disconcerting  habit  of  ejecting  poison  from   its  mouth   to  a  distance  • 
feet,    usually   aiming    with   considerable   accuracy   at    the   eyes   of    its    assailant.      Although 
unattended  by  permanently  serious  effects,  the  pain  caused  by  the  virus  striking  the  (  • 
for  the  time   being  excruciatingly   painful,  placing  the  recipient  of  the  unwelcome  di-i  h 
entirely  /tors  de  combat.     The    first    record   of   the   poison-spitting   propensities  of  tin-   -nAe, 
made  by  Mr.  Gordon  Gumming,  \va-  received  with  considerable  iiu  icdulitv,  but  the  statement 
has  been  confirmed.      A  relative  of  the  writer's,  stationed   in  Natal,  was  recently  the  victim  of 


Win.  *.   H    G.   F.  Snirnll,  Elf.] 

ENGLISH    VIPER 

The  only  Brtttih  fen&mcus  reptile 


By  permission  tf  the  New   ?"«r*  Zoological 


AFRICAN    PUFF-ADDER 

Horses  die  within  a  feiv  hours  of  being  bitten  by  this  serpent 


J  Permission  of  the  Nrw  Zerk  Zonog 


DIAMOND-BACK    RATTLE-SNAKE 

One  or  mart  Java  are  added  to  the  "  rattle'"  each  mcceaive  year 
197 


198       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


such  an  incident,  receiving  the  poison-discharge  in  his  eyes  from  one  of  these  snakes,  which, 
in  his  eagerness  to  dispatch  it,  he  had  imprudently  cornered,  armed  only  with  a  sword.  It 
was  some  days  before  the  pain  entirely  abated  and  the  sight  regained  its  normal  clearness. 

Australia,  with  its  BLACK  and  TIGKR-SXAKKS  and  the  DEATH-ADDER,  possesses  snakes  as 
venomous  as  the  cobra,  which  the  first-named  species  approach  in  their  capacity  to  inflate 
their  necks,  though  to  a  less  degree.  The  TASMAMAN  BLACK  SNAKE,  as  it  glides  swiftly,  as 
though  sailing,  across  open  grass-land,  with  the  midday  sun  scintillating  on  its  7-foot  stretch 
of  jet-black,  highly  polished  scales,  its  head  and  expanded  neck  threateningly  elevated  some 
1 8  inches  above  the  ground,  is  certainly  a  most  impressive  sight. 

One  very  distinct  group  of  the  front-fanged  section  which  demands  brief  notice  is  that 
of  the  SEA-SNAKES.  These  are  readily  distinguished  by  their  especial  adaptation  to  a  marine 
existence,  their  much-compressed,  oar-like  tails  constituting  powerful  propelling  organs.  •  In 
contradistinction  to  the  terrestrial  snakes  of  the  same  group,  the  inferior  scales,  not  being 
required  for  terrestrial  locomotion,  are  little  if  any  larger  than  the  upper  ones.  All  the  species 
are  highly  venomous ;  they  feed  chiefly  upon  fish,  and  are  distributed  throughout  the  tropical 
seas.  The  larger  species  rarely  exceed  5  or  6  feet  in  length,  and  the  majority  are  much 
smaller.  Many  species  are  noted  for  their  conspicuous  colouring,  which  most  frequently  takes 

the  form  of  distinctly  contrasting  bands.     All 
the  members  of  this  group  are  viviparous. 

The  last  and  most  highly  specialised 
section  of  the  Snake  Tribe  is  that  of  the 
YlI'ER  and  its  allies,  collectively  known  as 
the  Viperine  Family.  In  all  the  representa- 
tives of  this  group  the  hinder  upper  jaw-bone 
is  so  loosely  articulated  that  it  is  capable  of 
erection  at  a  right  angle  to  the  horizontal 
plane  of  the  skull,  the  gape  of  the  mouth 
being  in  consequence  abnormally  wide.  The 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  are  reduced  to  a  single 
anteriorly-situated  pairof  tubular  poison-fangs, 
with  which,  when  striking  its  prey,  the  snake 
deals  a  direct  stab.  The  head  in  the  majority 
of  the  Viperine  Snakes  is  flattened  and  tri- 
angular, nearly  resembling  in  contour  the 
symbolic  ace  of  spades.  The  body  is  usually 
relatively  thick,  and  the  tail  short  and  stumpy.  The  vertical  pupil  of  the  eye  denotes  nocturnal 
habits.  All  the  members  of  the  section  are  venomous. 

The  Viperine  Snakes  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups.  The  first  contains  the  Typical 
or  Old  World  Vipers,  and  includes,  in  addition  to  the  COMMON  VIH  K.the  CERASTI-'S  or  HORM  -:i» 
VlPKR  of  Kgypt,  and  the  large  and  most  repulsive  and  deadly  African  PL'FK-ADDER.  The 
COMMON  ViPER  or  ADDER,  the  only  poisonous  British  snake,  has  a  very  extensive  geographical 
distribution,  extending  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  east  as  the  island  of  Saghalien,  and 
northwards  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  MoK\r.i>  Vni  u  ..("tin-  S.ihar.i  and  North  Africa  is  one  of 
the  most  venomous  of  living  serpents.  Lying  buried  beneath  the  sand,  with  only  its  head 
above,  it  will  spring  aggressively  at  any  animal  which  pa-se*.  by,  and  the  action  ot  its  venom 
is  so  rapid  that  a  horse  or  man  bitten  by  it  usually  dies  within  half  an  hour.  In  colour  the 
horned  viper  closely  resembles  the  sand  or  stony  wastes  amon^  which  it  lies.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  in  this  snake  is  the  presence  of  two  elevated  horn-like  processes  immediately 
above  the  eyes,  which  are  most  prominent  in  the  male.  The  species  has  frequently  been  on 
view  at  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens.  On  one  occasion  an  ostensible  example  was  purchased 
and  deposited  in  the  Reptile-house,  which  proved  on  nearer  investigation  to  be  a  base  imposition. 
A  common  desert-viper  had  been  cleverly  manipulated  by  the  deft  insertion  of  suitably  shaped 


M.I.  »,  J.  If.  MtL'llin 

RATTLE-SNAKE 

Ttt  rattlt-nake  n  pre-eminently  noted  far  in  power  of  fascinating  bi'dt 
and  the  imaller  mammali 


SNAKES 


199 


splinters  of  wood  into  its  head,  so  that  it  resembled  the  rarer  horned  variety.  The  PUFF- 
ADDER,  the  largest  member  of  its  tribe,  may  attain  to  a  length  of  6  feet  or  more,  and  is 
distributed  throughout  the  African  Continent.  Its  thick  body  is  almost  triangular  in  section, 
the  head  very  large,  flat,  and  bluntly  rounded  anteriorly,  while  the  eyes  have  a  particularly 
fierce,  stony,  and  repulsive  aspect.  In  colour  individuals  vary  considerably,  but  there  is  generally 
a  chequered  pattern  of  reds,  browns,  and  greys,  disposed  in  the  form  of  darker  and  lighter 
alternating  crescent-shaped  bands  along  the  back.  The  poison  of  this  snake  is  nearly  as 
virulent  as  that  of  the  horned  viper,  and  is  commonly  used  by  the  African  bushmen  for 
poisoning  their  arrows. 

The  Viperine  group  is  abundantly  represented  in  the  New  World,  where  its  members 
differ  from  the  typical  Old  World  species  in  sundry  anatomical  points,  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous features  being  the  presence  of  a  distinct  depression  or  pit  in  the  surface  of  the  head 
between  the  nostril  and  the  eye  on  either  side.  On  this  account  they  are  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  PIT-VIPERS.  Among  the  more  familiar  representatives  of  this  group  are  the 
RATTLE-SNAKES,  the  FER-DE-I.ANCE,  the  BUSH-MASTER,  and  the  COPPER-HEAD  or  MOCASSIN- 
SNAKES.  All  these  are  notoriously  venomous,  fatal  effects  from  bites  received  by  human  subjects 
being  of  frequent  recurrence.  The  RATTLE-SNAKES  are  especially  distinguished  by  the  peculiar, 
loosely  jointed,  horny  appendage  to  their  tails,  by  the  rapid  vibration  of  which,  when  disturbed, 
they  fortunately  give  timely  notice  of  their  presence.  In  the  young  individuals  this  rattle 
is  only  represented  by  a  single  button-like  knob,  additional  loose,  hollow,  horny  rings  being 
added  between  it  and  the  scaly  termination  of  the  tail  as  age  increases.  In  full-grown 
examples  the  horny  rings  composing  the  rattle  may  number  as  many  as  twenty  or  more, 
though,  owing  to  the  war  of  extermination  incessantly  levied  against  these  reptiles  in  all 
civilised  areas,  it  is  rarely  that  such  elaborate  rattle-bearers  are  now  met  with.  The  rattle- 
snake, in  the  more  northern  districts  of  its  distribution,  hibernates  in  the  winter,  often 
congregating  together  in  great  numbers  for  the  sake  of  the  mutual  warmth.  In  the  earlier 
days  certain  caves  were  famous  as  the  retreats  into  which  not  only  hundreds  but  thousands 
of  the  reptiles  would  congregate  from  the  country  round  for  their  winter's  slumber.  At  such 
times  hunting-parties  were  specially  organised  for  their  wholesale  destruction,  and  accomplished 
much  towards  reducing  their  ranks  to  their  present  numbers. 

In  addition  to  the  common  North  American  rattle-snake  there  are  some  four  or  five 
other  species  distributed  throughout  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  and  Panama.  None  appear 
to  exceed  a  length  of  6  feet.  In  South  America  their  place  is  to  a  large  extent  taken 


Br  prrmlsilm  ff  thi  N/w  Ttrt  Zathgiial  Satiny 

FER-DE-LANCE    SNAKE 

One  of  the  fiercest  and  most  i-enomius  of  American  t'iperinc  snakes 


200      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


by  the  so-called  BUSII-MA-TKR,  a  snake  which 
attains  to  a  length  of  as  much  as  from  9  to 
12  feet,  and,  in  addition  to  being  exceedingly 
venomous,  is  of  an  especially  fierce  and  aggres- 
sive disposition.  It  is  devoid  of  a  rattle-like 
appendage,  the  tail  terminating  in  a  sharp 
hornyspine.  The  FER-DI.-I  \v  i  ,  or  RAT-TAII.KI> 
PlT-VII'ER.isanotherCentral  and  South  American 
species,  held  in  wholesome  dread  on  account 
of  its  death-dealing  potentialities.  The  South 
American  sugar-plantations  are  an  especially 
favourite  resort  of  this  deadly  snake,  its  attrac- 
tion being  the  rats  which  frequent  the  cams 
and  afford  its  chief  food.  Lying  concealed 
among  the  thick  foliage,  it  will  launch  itself 
aggressively  at  any  passer-by,  and  its  bite  is 
usually  attended  with  fatal  results  within  a  few 
hours.  The  fer-de-lance  grows  to  a  length 
of  6  or  7  or  occasionally  even  8  feet,  with  a 
thickness  of  a  man's  arm.  Its  colours,  as  with 
most  members  of  its  tribe,  are  somewhat  variable. 
The  ground-colour  of  the  back  is  usually  olive 
or  reddish  brown,  with  dark  cross-bands ;  a 
black  stripe  runs  backwards  from  the  cyo  to 
the  neck,  and  in  some  instances  the  sides  of 
the  body  are  bright  red. 

The  American  Continent  is  not  wanting  in 
aquatic    representatives  of  the   Viperine   -cries. 

The  most  notable  of  these  is  the  fish-eating  WATER-VM-KR.  whose  distribution  extends  from 
North  Carolina  in  the  south  over  the  whole  of  North  America  as  far  westward  as  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Fish  and  frogs  constitute  the  main  diet  of  this  reptile. 


Phttt  ki  $ch»I*itit  PJittt  Ct  "] 

BULL-FROG 


\f' 


Tkt  creating  of  tHt  iptciti  mav  bt  litara  at  a  Jiitante  of  iweral 
miles 


AMPHIBIANS 


CHAPTER   VI 

FROGS  A\'D    TOADS 

THE  Amphibian  Class,  through  the 
Newts  and  Salamanders  more  espe- 
cially, would  appear  at  first  sight  to 
have  much  in  common  with  and  to  be  most 
closely  allied  to  the  Lizards,  previously  described. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  group  is  much 
more  nearly  related  t<>  the  Fi-hcs.  Quite  the 
most  characteristic  feature  in  tin-  Amphibians 
that  is  indicative  of  the  above-mentioned  affinity 
is  the  circumstance  that  for  a  more  or  less  longer 
period  of  their  existence  their  respiratory  or- 
gans take  the  form  of  external  gills,  structures 
not  found  in  any  of  the  preceding  vertebrate 
classes.  Another  diagnostic  character  of  the 


i  hi,,  h  ir.  p.  i>,»j,.  i.-/.  '. 

AMI  KUAN     HI    I  I.-KROC; 
Tm*g  duiki  art  icmrtrmn  a  fooa  of  ik<i  i-iracicut  Sa 


FROGS    AND    TOADS 


201 


Phott  it  Sihelzitit  Phut 


EDIBLE    FROG 

The  hind  legs   only  of  this  species  are  used  for  the  composition  of  iht 
famous  dish 


Amphibia  is  afforded  by  the  circumstance  that 
they  all  pass  through  a  transitional  or  larval 
condition  before  arriving  at  the  adult  state. 
The  familiar  tadpole  phase  of  the  common  frog 
or  toad  typically  illustrates  this  point.  During 
its  earliest  larval  state  the  fish-like  resem- 
blance is  especially  conspicuous.  In  addition 
to  possessing  gills,  the  body  is  limbless,  and 
produced  into  a  long  fish-like  tail,  having 
superior  and  inferior  fin-like  membranes, 
with  which  the  little  animal  propels  itself 
through  the  water.  These  locomotive  fins, 
however,  are  never  furnished  with  supporting 
fin-rays,  as  obtains  among  the  Fishes.  In 
contradistinction  to  the  Lizards  and  Snakes, 
the  skin  of  Amphibians  is  never  covered  with 
spines  or  scales,  but  is  soft  and  naked.  In 

many  of  the  Toads  and  Salamanders  the  surface  of  the  skin  is,  however,  warted  and  highly 
glandular,  and  capable  of  emitting  an  acrid  and  sometimes  po.sonous  fluid.  More  or  less 
pronounced  conditions  of  moisture  are  essential  for  the  well-being  of  all  Amphibians.  The 
eggs  are  deposited,  and  the  earlier  or  larval  conditions,  with  but  few  exceptions,  passed,  in 
the  water,  while  the  adults  remain  in  its  near  proximity,  and  frequently  take  up  their  abode 
in  it.  Amphibia  do  not,  however,  drink  water  after  the  manner  of  lizards  and  other  reptiles, 
but  absorb  all  the  moisture  they  require  through  the  surface  of  their  skins.  The  deeper 
and  more  essential  skeletal  elements  of  the  Amphibia  differ  conspicuously  from  those  of  the 
preceding  groups.  The  vertebra;  in  the  permanently  gill-bearing  species  more  particularly 
are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  fishes.  In  the  Frog  and  Toad  Tribe,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  reduced  to  a  less  number,  seven  or  eight  only,  that  is  found  among 
any  other  vertebrates,  while  ribs  do  not  exist  or  are  rudimentary  and  functionless  throughout 
the  class.  Many  bones  of  the  skull  in  the  Amphibia,  as  well  as  its  general  construction,  are 
more  in  accord  with  those  of  fishes  than  of  ordinary  reptiles.  The  tongue,  not  always  present, 
is  attached  immediately  inside  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  its  tip  pointing  down  the  animal's 
throat.  It  is  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  their  aquatic  proclivities,  no  Amphibian  has 
been  discovered  which  frequents  salt  water. 

Amphibians  amongst  themselves  constitute  two  very  easily  recognised  sub-divisions,  —  the 

one  including  the  Frogs  and  Toads,  collec- 
tively forming  the  Tailless  group ;  and  the 
other  represented  by  the  Newts  and  Sala- 
manders, or  Tailed  Amphibians.  The  former 
group  has  an  almost  world-wide  distribution, 
numbering  some  thousand  species ;  it  is  most 
abundantly  represented  in  the  tropics,  rang- 
ing thence  in  diminishing  numbers  to  the 
limits  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  In  colder  climates 
these  Amphibia  usually  hibernate  during  the 
winter  months;  while  in  tropical  countries, 
where  dry  seasons  intervene,  they  often 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  and  remain 
in  a  state  of  torpor  till  the  return  of  the 
rains.  The  majority  are  more  or  less  es- 
sentially noct-irnal  in  their  habits.  Frogs 
and  toads  commence  life  in  an  aquatic 


( 

Fheu  kj  W.  P.  Dtndt,  F.Z.S. 


TIGER-LIKE    FROG 

A  species  ctosefy  allied  to  the  common  frjg,  but  more  boldly  marked 


202       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


tadpole   phase.     While   in   the   adult   state   they   are   strictly  carnivorous,   the   tadpoles   are 
vegetarian  feeders. 

The  section  to  which  the  COMMON  BRITISH  FROG  belongs  includes  nearly  150  species, 
collectively  known  as  Water-frogs,  which  present  considerable  differences  in  both  their  aspect 
and  habits.  While  some  are  perennially  aquatic,  others  only  resort  to  the  water  during  the 
breeding-season ;  some  are  terrestrial  and  occasionally  earth-burrowers,  while  yet  another  series 
is  essentially  arboreal. 

In  addition  to  the  familiar  British  species  the  much-esteemed  EDIBLE  FROG  of  the 
Continent  has  become  acclimatised  in  England.  A  dark-coloured  race  of  this  frog,  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  by  the  monks  centuries  since  on  account  of  its  esculent  properties,  is 

plentiful  in  the  fens  of  Cambridgeshire,  while  a 
greener  race  of  the  same  species  was  imported 
to  and  established  in  Norfolk  somewhere  about 
the  year  1840.  The  edible  frog  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  common  species  by 
the  more  complete  webbing  of  its  hind  feet, 
the  absence  of  the  dark  so-called  temporal 
spot  that  extends  from  the  eye  to  the  shoulder, 
and  the  presence  in  the  males  of  a  globular 
sac  on  each  side  of  the  head,  which  confers 
upon  them  louder  croaking  powers  than  are 
possessed  by  the  common  species. 

The  loudest-voiced  as  well  as  almost  the 
largest  member  of  this  group  is  the  Bn  I  - 
FROG  of  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The 
length  of  the  body  in  this  species  may  be 
as  much  as  from  7  to  7.^  inches,  exclusive  of 
the  legs;  and  its  croakings,  or  more  correctly 
bellowings,  are  so  loud  that  it  may  be  heard 
for  a  distance  of  several  miles.  These  croakings 
are  most  pronounced  during  the  early  spring 
or  breeding-season.  In  the  Southern  United 
States,  however,  they  are  maintained  more  or 
less  persistently  throughout  the  year.  While 
the  British  frog  contents  it-elf  with  a  diet  of 
slugs,  worms,  beetles,  and  other  insects,  the 
bull-frog  aspires  to  larger  quarry,  anil  lias  an 
especial  penchant  for  young  ducklings.  As  a 
compensation  the  flesh  of  the  bull-frog  is  said 
to  be  very  delicately  flavoured,  anil  the  species 
is  so  much  esteemed  in  some  localities  as  to 
be  kept  in  captivity  and  fattened  for  the 
table.  It  has  been  recorded  that  the  bull-frog  makes  leaps  of  from  8  to  10  feet  in  length  and 
5  feet  in  height. 

In  point  of  size  the  bull-frog  is  somewhat  eclipsed  by  a  species  discovered  in  the  Solomon 
Islands,  and  known  as  GUTY'S  FROG.  This  huge  frog  has  a  body  no  le-s  than  9  inches  in 
length.  It  has  not  been  recorded  whether  its  vocal  powers  are  proportionately  loud.  Another 
large  species  allied  to  the  Bull-frogs  is  found  in  South  and  F.a-t  Afrira.  whose  tKsh  is  attested 
to  by  Dr.  Livingstone  as  being  excellent  eating  and  resembling  chicken  when  cooked.  This 
frog,  known  to  the  natives  as  the  MATI.AMITLO.  is  supposed  by  them  to  fall  from  the  clouds, 
on  account  of  its  sudden  appearance  in  even  the  driest  parts  of  the  desert  immediately  after 
a  thunder-storm.  The  sp< -i -it -.  however,  is  in  the  habit  of  making  holes  at  the  roots  of  bushes, 


MM»  h  If.  Smllt-Ktnt,  f.Z  S  I  [Miltird-i*-Sn 

RONTGEN    RAY    PHOTOGRAPH    OF 
COMMON    FROG 

Tke  relatively  mall  amount  of  bone  'which  enters  into  tke  ttrutture  of 
ike  jlu//  ii  'well  tht'wn  in  thtt  photograph 


FROGS    AND    TOADS 


203 


fhui  by  Slhaui,i<  Phali.  Co. 

ORNAMENTED    HORNED    TOAD 

TAc  bite  of  this  toad  is  highly  "venomous 


into    which    it    retires    during    the    months    of 

drought,    rushing    out    into    the    hollows    filled 

by   the   thunder-showers  while  the  rain    is  still 

actually  falling.     Even  during  the  long  drought 

these  frogs  continue  their  croakings  from  their 

retreats    at    night,  and    are  very  misleading    to 

travelers,     who     customarily     associate       their 

presence  with  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 

water. 

There    is   a    remarkable    difference    in    the 

voice-timbre    of  the    various    species    of  frogs. 

In    England,   with    its   one    indigenous   variety, 

comparisons  cannot  be  instituted.     In  countries, 

however,  like  Austrailia,  where  n  ambers  of  species 

live  in  close  proximity,  the  phenomenon  is  very 

marked.     Some  only  give  voice  in  the  evening 

or   night,  while  others    keep  up    their  clamour 

throughout    the    day ;     with  some    the    note    is 

metallic  and  almost  bell-like,  while  one  diurnal 

croaking    species,   which    congregates    in    great 

numbers  in  the  eastern  Tasmanian  coast  district, 

emits  a  loud  percussive  note  closely  resembling 

that  of  a  stone-breaker's  hammer.     On  several 

occasions,    in    fact,  when    driving   through    the  areas  these   frogs    frequented,  the    impression 

produced  by  their  croaking  was  so  realistic  that  the  next  turn  in  the  road  was  expected  to 

reveal  the  presence  of  a  large  gang  of  road-makers  engaged  in  negotiating  a  wayside  stone-heap. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  species  is  the  FLYING-FROG  of  Java.     The  power  of  flight  is 

simulated  in  this  instance  on  a  different  principle  to  that  which  obtains  in  any  other  group. 

It   is   not   accomplished   through  the   medium  of  abnormally   produced   ribs   with   connecting 

membrane,  as  occurs  in  the  Flying-lizards ;   nor  by  means  of  a  flap  of  skin  stretched  between 

the  fore  and  hind  limbs,  as  in  the  Flying-squirrels  and   Phalangers.     In  place,  of  these  the  toes 

of  all  four  feet  are  abnormally  prolonged,  and  their  interspaces  bridged  over  to  their  tips  by 

webbing.     The  body  of  this  frog  is  about  4  inches  long,  while  the  webs  of  the  feet,  when  fully 

expanded,  cover  collectively  an  area  of  fully  12  square  inches;   they  thus  constitute  aerial  floats, 

which  enable  their  owner  to  make  prodigiously  long  flying  leaps  among  the  trees  in  which  it 

takes  up  its  abode.  The  colours  of  this  singular 
species  are  striking;  the  back  and  limbs  are  a 
deep  shining  green,  the  under-surface  and  inner 
toes  yellow,  and  the  webs' black  rayed  with  yellow. 
In  common  with  the  typical  Tree-frogs,  the  toes 
of  this  Javan  flying  variety  all  terminate  in  a 
dilated  adhesive  disk. 

Among  the  oddities  of  the  Frog  Tribe 
prominence  may  be  given  to  the  singular  SHORT- 
HEADED  FROGS  of  East  Africa.  In  these  the  head 
is  so  short,  and  the  body,  when  puffed  out,  so 
nearly  globular,  that  they  have  been  aptly 
described  as  more  nearly  resembling  india-rubber 
balls  than  frogs.  Another  notable  form,  inhabiting 
Chili,  is  remarkable  for  the  circumstance  that 
the  throat-sac  of  the  male  is  so  enlarged  and 
modified  as  to  form  a  chamber  on  the  under 


Phato  ky  W.  P.  Dande,  F.Z.S. 

ORNAMENTED 


HORNED    TOAD 


Is  accustomed  to  proivl  round  farmyards  to  fick  uf  stray  chick 
and  ducklings 


204       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


surface  of  the  body.     In  this  sac  the  eggs  laid  by  the  female  are  deposited  and  pass  through 
their  tadpole  phases. 

The  HOKNKD  FKO<;S,  or  HOKNKD  TOADS,  of  South  America  constitute  a  distinct  and 
interesting  group.  They  are  of  large  size,  stout  and  rotund,  gorgeously  apparelled,  and 
truculent  in  bearing  There  are  nearly  a  dozen  known  species,  the  distinctive  feature  from 
which  they  take  their  name  having  reference  to  the  stiff,  horn-like  development  of  their 
upper  eyelids.  The  largest  species  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  whose  body  may  be  as  much 
8  inches  long.  This  species  has  the  horn-like  processes  of  the  eyelids  most  prominently 
developed.  A  somewhat  smaller  but  conspicuously  handsome  species,  plentiful  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  is  at  the  present  time  represented  by  several  individuals  at  the  Regent's  Park  Gardens. 
In  this  animal  the  body  is  relatively  more  obese  and  toad-like  than  in  the  Brazilian  form, 
but  the  horn-like  angle  of  the  tipper  eyelid  is  only  slightly  produced.  The  colours  vary 
somewhat,  the  general  ground-tint  of  the  upper-surface  is  bronze-green  or  yellow,  upon  which 
are  distributed  large  spots  and  blotches  of  dark  olive  or  chocolate,  having  light  yellow  or 

golden  margins.  The  spots  on  the  limbs  arc 
the  widest,  and  almost  take  the  character  of 
cross-bands.  Bright  claret-red  lines  are  sonic- 
times  developed  in  and  among  the  body-spots. 
A  very  interesting  account  of  the  habits 
of  this  frog  appears  in  Mr.  \V.  H.  1  liaison's 
"The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata."  Mr.  Hudson 
reports  it  as  being  common  on  the  pampas 
as  far  south  as  the  Rio  Colorado,  in  Patagonia. 
In  the  breeding-season  it  congregates  in  p. 
and  displays  extraordinary  vocal  powers,  which 
are  exercised  at  night.  The  notes  uttered 
are  long,  resembling  those  of  a  wind  instru- 
ment, and  are  so  powerful  that  on  still  evenings 
they  may  be  heard  distinctly  a  mile  off.  After 
the  pairing-season  the  frogs  disperse,  and, 
retiring  to  moist  places,  bury  themselves  just 
deep  enough  to  leave  their  broad  green  backs 
on  a  level  with  the  surface.  The  eyes,  under 
these  conditions,  look  out  as  from  a  couple 
of  watch-towers,  and  are  on  the  ijni  r;':r  toi 
any  approaching  prey.  This  consists  of  any 
moving  creature  which  they  can  capture,  such 
as  other  frogs  and  toads,  birds,  and  small 
mammals.  In  very  wet"1  seasons  they  will  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  hou-e-,  and  lie  in 
wait  for  chickens  and  ducklings,  often  capturing  and  attempting  to  swallow  objects  much 
large  for  them.  In  disposition  they  are  exceedingly  pugnacious,  savagely  biting  at  anyth 
that  comes  near  them.  When  teased,  the  creature  swells  itself  out  to  Mich  an  extent  that  one 
expects  to  see  it  burst.  It  follows  its  tormentors  about  with  slow,  awkward  leaps,  its  vast 
mouth  wide  open,  and  uttering  an  incessant  harsh  croaking  sound.  When  they  bite,  these 
frogs  hold  on  with  the  tenacity  of  a  bull-dog,  poisoning  the  blood  of  the  creature  sei/ed  with 
their  glandular  secretion.  Mr.  Hudson  records  two  instances  in  \\hich  to  his  knowledge  horses 
were  killed  through  being  bitten  by  a  horned  frog.  (  »ne  of  them,  while  lying  down,  hail  1 
seized  by  a  fold  in  the  skin  near  the  belly;  the  other  had  b- <  n  gra-ped  by  the  nose  \\-hile 
cropping  grass.  In  both  instances  the  vicious  frog  was  found  dead,  with  jaws  tightly  el- 
still  hanging  to  the  dead  horse.  "It  would  seem,"  Mr.  Hudson  remarks,  "that  they  are 
sometimes  incapable  of  letting  go  at  will,  and,  like  honc\  !>•.-,  destroy  themselves  in  these 
savage  att.i< 


flui*  K  Stlauili,  flitli.  C«.} 


EUROPEAN    GREEN    TREE-FROG 

Indigenous  to  Southern  Europe 


FROGS    AND    TOADS 


205 


The  TREE-FROGS  represent  one  of  the  most  distinct 

groups  of  the  tribe.     All  its  members  are  more  or  less 

arboreal    in    their    habits,    repairing    to    the   water    only 

during  the  breeding-season,  or  leaving  the  trees  to  seek 

shelter  in  the  earth  or  underneath  stones  or  timber  for 

the  purposes  of  hibernation.     As  an  adaptation  for  their 

special   habits,   the   toes   of  the   tree-frogs  are  provided 

at  their  tips  with  suctorial  disks,  so  that  they  can  walk 

on  perpendicular  or  smoothly  glazed   surfaces   after  the 

manner  of  the    Geckos    among    the   Lizards.      Another 

characteristic   feature   is   the  development   on   the  under 

surface  of  their  bodies  of  peculiar  granular  glands  pierced 

by  numerous  pores,  through  the  medium  of  which  they 

rapidly  absorb   the   moisture   deposited  by  dew  or  rain 

on    the  surfaces  of  the   leaves   among    which  they   live. 

The  colours  of  the  tree-frogs  harmonise,  as  a  rule,  so  com- 
pletely with  those  of  their  leafy  environments  that  their 

presence  very  readily  escapes   detection.      Many  of  the 

species,  moreover,  rival  the  chameleon  in  their  capacity 

of  quickly  adapting  their  tints  to  that  of  a  newly  occu- 
pied   surrounding.      Green    is    naturally    the    dominant 

ground-tint    of  these  frogs.     Often,  however,  it   is  inter- 
mixed   with  stripes  and    bands  of  other    colours,  while 

sometimes  the  green  hue  is  entirely  replaced,  as  in  the 

BLUE   or  BICOLOURED  TREE-FROG  of  South  America, 

which  is  brilliant  azure  above   and   pure  white  beneath. 

A  very  beautiful  Australian  species,  abundant  in  Tasmania 

and  Victoria,  and  appropriately  named  the  GOLDEN  TREE- 
FROG,  has  its  grass-green  overcoat  thickly  overlaid  and 

embroidered  with,  as  it  were,  the  purest  beaten  gold. 

One  small    species  of  tree-frog    is   common  on  the 

European  Continent,  its  distribution  extending  to  North 

Africa  and    eastward    throughout    Asia    north    of  the    Himalaya    to    Japan.       The    species    is 

imported  into  England  in  considerable  numbers,  and  readily  becomes  acclimatised  in  a  conserva- 
tory. Green  above  and  whitish 
beneath  constitute  the  prevailing 
tints  of  this  species,  such  uni-- 
fortuity  being,  however,  varied  by 
the  presence  of  a  darker,  often, 
nearly  black,  light-edged  streak, 
that  extends  from  the  snout  through 
the  eye  and  ear  along  each  side 
of  the  body,  and  sends  a  branch 
upwards  and  forwards  on  the  loins. 
The  male  of  this  European  species 
shares  with  man}'  others  of  its 
tribe  the  possession  of  a  large 
external  vocal  sac,  which  when 
inflated  bulges  out  from  the  throat 

Mm  k}  H.  G.  F.  sp*,r,:i,  £,,;  lEaiihurnt  jn    a    spherical     form    to    dimen- 

COMMON   TOAD  sions    little    inferior    to    those    of 

T  oadi  are  accredited  with  attaining  an  age  of  several  hundred  years  the     Creature's    body.        It    may    be 

H 


PhM  bj  If.  Savillt-K'nl    f.Z.S.,  Wlfiri'-tlt.Sfe 

QUEENSLAND    TREE-FROGS 

This  species  is  in  the  habit  of  making  itself  ut  home  'n 
chamber  ivater-jugs 


206       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


observed  of  examples  of  these  frogs  acclimatised  in  a  conservatory  that  the  falling  of  heavy  rain 
on  the  roof  is  an  almost  certain  incentive  to  their  croakings.  By  pouring  water  resonantly 
from  a  little  height  into  another  vessel,  the  writer  also  found  that  he  could  produce  a  frog 
chorus  at  command. 

The  European  and  other  tree-frogs  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  water,  some  species  constructing 
asymmetrical  crater-like  nest  of  mud  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs  and  tadpoles.  Certain  kinds, 
however,  never  leave  the  trees,  having  adapted  their  requirements  to  the  naturally  provided 
environments.  Thus  one  Brazilian  species  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  water  almost  invariably 
contained  in  the  central  cup  of  a  tree,  while  another  allied  frog  chooses  for  the  same  purpose 
the  moist  interstices  at  the  bases  of  decaying  banana  leaves.  A  step  further,  resulting  in 
complete  independence  of  external  water,  is  arrived  at  by  the  MARSUPIAL  or  PoucilKD  TKI.K- 
FROG  of  Central  America.  In  this  species  the  female  develops  a  capacious  pouch  on  her  back, 
which  opens  backward,  and  wherein  both  the  eggs  —  primarily  assisted  to  their  position  by  the 

male  —  and  tadpoles  undergo  their 
characteristic  transformations. 

As  a  contrast  to  the  foregoing 
exclusively  tree-dwelling  forms,  one 
very  fine  species  common  in  Queens- 
land has  pronounced  social  proclivities. 
He  is  a  fine  fellow,  with  a  bright 
pea-green  coat  and  large,  lustrous  black 
eyes,  and  either  with  or  without  your 
leave  invades  your  bedroom  from  the 
adjoining  verandah,  and  makes  the 
lip  of  your  water-jug  his  headquarters. 
Here  he  will  "  lie  low  "  the  livelong 
day.  Writh  the  approach  of  night, 
however,  this  lethargy  is  thrown  aside, 
and  he  hops  forth,  making  excursions 
through  every  room  in  search  of  black- 
beetles,  spiders,  moths,  or  other  accept- 
able quarry.  In  this  vermin-destroying 
capacity  he  is  a  welcome  guest  to 

r>HHtf  s>i.ia<,i<  F>M,  r..i  (Pinui'i  Gr..n  all  except  perhaps  the  ultra-squeamish 

COMMON  TOAD  housekeeper,  his  occasional  offence  of 

an  upset  glass  or  cup  during  his 
excited  chase  of  the  wily  cockroach 
being  readily  condoned.  •.  He  has  a 

playful  habit  too,  during  his  midnight  wanderings,  of  climbing  up  walls  and  ceilings,  to  which 
he  readily  clings  with  his  adhesive  toes,  and  mayhap  drops  down  on  the  recumbent  form  of 
some  peaceful  sleeper,  who,  if  a  stranger,  possibly  wakes  with  an  alarming  apprehension  of 
snakes  or  other  uncanny  intruders.  When  once  this  Oi  I  I  N-I  AND  dki  I  \  FROG  has  determined 
upon  his  camping-ground,  he  clings  to  it  with  remarkable  pertinacity.  You  may  deport  him 
time  after  time,  and  even  carry  him  half  a  day's  journey  into  the  wilderness,  but  he  turns  up 
again  the  next  morning  or  the  following  one. 

Toads  are  distinguished  from  frogs  by  their  sluggish  creeping  movements  and  by 
their  non-possession  of  teeth.  There  are  over  eighty  species,  having  collectively  an  almost 
cosmopolitan  range,  though  they  are  not  found  in  Australia,  New  Guinea,  Madagascar,  or 
the  Pacific  Islands.  The  common  British  species  enjoys  a  wide  distribution,  being  found 
throughout  Europe,  Asia  excepting  India,  and  North-west  Africa.  Its  somewhat  clumsy,  brown, 
wrinkled,  and  warted  body,  with  darker  spots  and  markings  on  the  upper-surface  and  white- 
speckled  under-surface,  will  be  familiar  to  every  reader.  With  many  it  is  an  unwarranted, 


Tfu  toad  it  kighlf  appreciated  by  the   korticulturitt   on  account  of  ttt  utility  in 

inuct-ftstt 


FROGS    AND    TOADS 


207 


object  of  aversion,  and  in  country  districts  is  not  infrequently  accredited  with  venomous 
properties.  Toad-spawn  is  plentiful  in  ponds  and  ditches  in  the  early  spring,  and  may 
be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  frog  by  the  fact  of  its  being  deposited  in  chain-like 
strings,  the  eggs  being  arranged  in  a  double  alternating  row,  instead  of  in  irregular  masses, 
as  obtains  with  the  last-named  species.  The  individual  eggs  are,  moreover,  smaller,  and 
deposited  two  or  three  weeks  later  in  the  season  than  those  of  the  frog.  A  second  and 
somewhat  rarer  British  toad  is  known  as  the  NATTERJACK.  It  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  ordinary  species  by  the  shorter  hind  limbs,  the  more  prominent  eyes,  and  the  con- 
spicuous yellow  line  down  the  middle  of  its  back.  It  is  also  somewhat  more  active  than 
the  common  species. 

The  last  member  of  the  group  which  demands  brief  notice  is  the  singular  WATER-TOAD 
of  Surinam.  This  animal,  also  known  as  the  PlPA,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  moist  forest  regions 
of  the  Guianas  and  Central  America,  and  remarkable  on  account  of  the  singular  phenomena 
connected  with  its  breeding  habits.  The  eggs,  from  60  to  over  100  in  number,  are  deposited 
by  the  female  in  the  water  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  at  this  stage  they  are  taken  in 
hand  by  the  male  and  literally  planted  in  the  back  of  the  female,  whose  skin  in  this  region 
becomes  abnormally  soft  and  thickened  at  this  season.  The  young  toads  undergo  their 
complete  development  in  the  parental  integument,  each  egg  and  its  resulting  embryo  occupying 
a  separate  primarily  cylindrical  chamber,  which  by  lateral  pressure  becomes  hexagonal,  resembling 
a  honeycomb-cell.  Eighty-two  days  are  occupied  from  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  the  eggs 
until  the  young  toads  emerge  into  the  outer  world,  their  appearance  as  they  make  their 
debut,  with  here  a  head  and  there  one  or  it  may  be  two  limbs  thrust  out  from  the  surface  of 
the  parent's  back,  being  highly  grotesque. 


CHAPTER    VII 

NEWTS   AND    SALAMANDERS 

THE  Newts  and  Salamanders,  or  Tailed  Amphibians,  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
group  of  the  Frogs  and  Toads  by  the  retention  of  a  tail  throughout  life.  In  this 
manner  they  very  nearly  resemble  the  advanced  larval  or  tadpole  phases  of  the  latter. 
In  some  instances,  in  fact,  the 
earlier  or  externally  gill-bearing 
tadpole  phase  is  persistent.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  the 
Salamander  Tribe  is  much  less 
extensive  than  that  of  the  Frogs 
and  Toads,  but  few  are  found  south 
of  the  Equator,  and  they  are  entirely 
unknown  in  Australia  or  in  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara. 

Two  members  of  the  group 
are  indigenous  to  the  British 
Islands,  where  they  arc  familiarly 
known  as  NEWTS,  ASKERS,  EKFETS, 
or  EFTS.  The  larger  and  handsomer 
of  the  two,  the  CRESTED  NE\VT, 
occurs  in  ponds  and  ditches 

ph,u  t,  jam,,  B  or,  £J?. 


throughout  the  warmer  months  of 
the  year.  It  grows  to  a  length  of 
nearly  6  inches,  of  which  the  tail 
constitutes  about  one  moiety.  Its 


WARTED    OR    CRESTED    NEWT 

T, 

I  nil    harmless    mite   creature    is   accredited   b\   many   country   people   with    venomous 


2()8       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


colour  is  more  usually  blackish  or  olive-brown  with  darker  circular  spots  above,  and  yellow  or 
orange-red  with  black  spots  or  marbling  beneath,  while  the  sides  are  speckled  white.  In  the 
breeding-season  the  colours  are  more  especially  brilliant,  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  the  male 
develops  the  serrated  crest  along  the  middle  of  its  back,  from  which  it  takes  its  title. 

The  eggs,  or  spawn,  of  the  newt  are  deposited  in  a  different  fashion  to  those  of  the  frog 
and  toad.  In  place  of  being  aggregated  together  in  an  irregular  or  ribbon-like  mass,  each 
is  deposited  separately  and  attached  to  the  leaves  of  water-plants.  By  the  dexterous  use 
of  its  feet,  the  female  newt  twists  or  folds  the  leaf,  or  a  portion  of  it,  around  the  egg,  its 
viscid  envelope  allowing  it  to  readily  adhere,  and  it  is  thus  effectually  concealed  or  protected 
from  injury.  When  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  the  tadpole  escapes  from  the  egg.  At 
this  early  stage  the  gills  are  quite  simple  and  the  front  limbs  represented  by  mere  knobs. 
Immediately  in  front  of  the  gills  are  two  fleshy  lobes,  by  means  of  which  the  tadpole  can 
temporarily  adhere  to  the  surfaces  of  water-plants.  Within  a  fortnight  the  little  animal  has 
grown  to  double  the  size.  The  gills  are  now  elegantly  branched  and  the  fore  limbs  well 
developed.  The  latter  are,  however,  only  bifurcated  at  their  extremities,  and  it  is  some  little 
time  later  that  four  distinct  toes  are  possessed  by  each  fore  limb  and  that  the  hind  limbs 
make  their  appearance.  The  gills,  which  have  at  this  stage  reached  their  most  complex  state 

of  development,  now  begin  to  diminish  in 
size,  and  are  gradually  absorbed,  the  lung-, 
in  the  meantime  acquiring  their  full 
functional  proportions.  The  newt,  having 
now  passed  from  the  fish-like  to  a  reptilian 
stage,  is  unable  to  live  entirely  beneath 
the  water,  and  is  obliged  to  come  up  to 
the  surface  at  intervals  to  breathe,  or  is 
adapted  for  living  entirely  upon  land. 
Newts  in  their  fully  matured  state,  except 
during  the  breeding-season,  pass  much  of 
their  time  on  land,  and  wander  to  con- 
siderable distances  from  the  water.  Tin-s- 
at all  times,  however,  exhibit  a  preference 
for  moist  situations,  such  as  a  shady  wood 
or  damp  cellar. 

Like  the  toad  and  blind-worm,  the 
feeble,  inoffensive  newt  has  from  the  earliest 
time  to  the  present  day  been  the  victim  of  the  most  unmerited  dread  and  persecution  among 
the  uneducated.  In  some  country  districts  it  is  not  only  accredited  with  the  property  of 
biting  venomously,  but  of  spitting  fire  into  the  bitten  wound.  A  property  that  is  Actually 
possessed  by  these  creatures  is  that  of  reproducing  lost  parts.  The  (ieckos  and  other  li/.ards, 
as  already  recorded,  are  in  the  habit  of  reproducing  their  mutilated  tails.  The  newt,  however, 
beats  that  record  to  the  extent  of  reproducing  lost  legs,  and,  it  has  been  affirmed,  eyes  also. 

A    second   species   of  British   newt,   of  somewhat  smaller    size    and    even   more   common 
than  the  crested  one,  is  the  COMMON  01  SM»OI  n  \r\vi.     It  scarcely  exceeds  ,  inches  in  length, 
and  is  distinguished  by  its  smooth  skin  and  relatively  less  conspicuous  crest.      In  habits  it  is 
less  addicted  to  a  prolonged  aquatic   residence   than   the   crested   form,   and  wanders  to   m 
considerable  distance*  from  water.     One  of  the  largest  and   handsomest  representatives  of  the 
family  is   the   MAKIH.KD  N'EWT  of  Southern   France  and  the  Spanish   Peninsula,  which  attains 
a  length   of  8   or  9   inches.      The    upper-parts   of  the   male   at    the    breeding-season    are   blight 
bronze-green   with   irregular  black    markings;    its  nest   is  ornamented   with    black    and    white 
vertical  bars,  and  a  silvery  white  band  is  developed  along  the  sides  of  the  tail.     The  crestl 
female  has  a  distinctive  orange  streak  running  down   the  centre   of  the   back-. 

The  TRUESALAMANDERS  have  noBritish  representative,  though  the  common  or  spotted  species 


/•*«•  kj  jftmti  B.  C 


SMOOTH    NEWT 


T&is  tftciet  often  travels  long  distance*  from  -water,  taking  up  its  residence 
in  damp  cellar*  and  vau/ts 


NEWTS    AND    SALAMANDERS 


209 


is  abundant  throughout  Central  and  Southern 
Europe.  Its  conspicuous  livery  —  in  which  bold 
markings  of  black  and  brilliant  yellow  are  some- 
what equally  balanced,  no  two  individuals,  how- 
ever, precisely  corresponding  —  distinguishes  it 
broadly  from  all  other  members  of  the  group. 
The  surface  of  the  skin  is  very  smooth  and 
shining,  and  thickly  set  on  the  surface  with 
glands  and  pores,  from  which  a  viscid  and  un- 
doubtedly poisonous  secrecion  is  exuded.  In 
common  with  that  of  other  salamanders,  the  tail 
is  cylindrical,  instead  of  compressed  and  oar- 
shaped,  as  in  the  Newts,  and  there  is  no  crest 
down  the  back.  The  SPOTTED  SALAMANDER 
frequents  moist  situations  in  mountain  and  forest 
districts.  It  is  essentially  nocturnal  in  its  habits, 
lying  up  during  the  day  in  some  suitable  rock 
or  mossy  crevice,  exposure  of  its  sensitive  skin 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  speedily  having 
a  fatal  effect.  Large  numbers  of  this  salamander 
are  sold  as  suitable  and  curious  additions  to  the  fernery  and  vivarium,  and  will  survive  for 
long  periods,  appropriate  food  and  the  necessary  conditions  of  moisture  being  provided.  Snails, 
worms,  and  beetles  and  other  insects  constituting  its  natural  food,  it  fulfils  as  useful  a  r61e 
as  the  toad  in  the  extermination  of  insect-pests,  and  may  be  as  strongly  recommended  for 
introduction  to  the  greenhouse. 

Salamanders  repair  to  the  water  to  breed,  after  the  manner  of  newts,  but  the  young 
are  usually  brought  forth  alive,  though  occasionally  eggs  are  deposited,  from  which  the 
young  tadpoles  almost  immediately  emerge.  The  number  usually  produced  at  a  birth  ranges 
from  sixteen  to  thirty,  but  instances  are  recorded  where  there  have  been  as  many  as  fifty. 


c  fy  If.  Savillt-Kint,  T.Z.S.J 

SPOTTED    SALAMANDERS 

Natives  of  Central  Eurofe 


Fh,,,  b,  If.  Smillli-K.at,  F./..S.} 


[MIIJtrd-tf.Su 


SPOTTED    SALAMANDER 

Thr.  skin  -f  the  salamander  exudes  a  poisonous  secretion,  and  its  bright  colours  advertise  its  non-edible  properties  to  carnivorous  birds  andir.aTRr..al\ 


210      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  colossus  of  the  tailed  Amphibian  race  is  the  GIANT  SALAMANDER  of  China  and  Japan, 
which  may  attain  to  a  length  of  from  3  to  3.}  feet.  The  body,  like  that  of  the  ordinary 
salamanders,  is  broad  and  depressed ;  but  the  eyes  are  very  small,  and  have  no  eyelids;  and  the 
tail,  which  is  relatively  short,  is  compressed,  and  has  a  fin  both  above  and  beneath.  '1  'hi-- 
salamander  lives  entirely  in  the  water,  and  is  adapted  for  such  an  aquatic  life  by  the 
possession  of  both  lungs  and  gills.  In  its  native  habitat  it  is  most  usually  found  in  small, 
clear  mountain-streams,  at  elevations  of  from  700  to  5,00x3  feet  above  the  sea-level,  such 
streams  being  often  not  more  than  a  foot  in  width,  and  more  or  less  overgrown  with  grasses ; 
in  these  the  adults  are  usually  found  curled  round  the  larger  stones,  while  the  smaller  ones 
occupy  holes  and  crevices  among  them. 

A  representative  of  the  tribe  now  commonly  kept  in  aquaria  is  the  Mexican  Axol.oiL. 
It  has  usually  a  velvety  black  skin,  and  grows  to  a  length  of  9  or  10  inches.  As  generally 
known  it  presents  a  very  newt-like  aspect,  or,  more  correctly,  that  advanced  tadpole  state  of 


fhtt 


YELLOW    PHASE   OF 

Tkt  first  four  or  five  montht  of  the  yo 


TED    SALAMANDKRS 

vianjer'i  lij'e  are  patseJ  tn  iht  -:i\ntr 


the  newt  in  which  the  external  gills  are  most  highly  developed.  The  animals  breed  freely  in 
the  water,  eggs  being  laid,  which  pass  through  the  earlier  tadpole  to  the  adult  phase.  I'p  to 
within  comparatively  recent  times  the  foregoing  metamorphoses  were  supposed  to  represent 
the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  animal's  existence.  Some  exceptional  examples,  however,  bred 
in  an  aquarium  in  which  rocks  projected  out  of  the  water,  surprised  their  owners  by  gradually 
absorbing  their  supposed  persistent  gills,  also  their  fin-like  tail-membranes,  and,  crawling  out 
on  the  rocks,  were  transformed  into  ordinary  salamanders. 

The  Ol.M,  or  Hl.lM)  Pl«>Ti:rs,  of  the  subterranean  caves  of  Dalmatia  and  Carniola  is  a  form 
with  persistent  external  gills.  Nearly  allied  is  the  North  American  form  known  .is  the  1-YKK<  >\vi:i> 
SALAMANDER.  The  latter,  however,  living  under  more  normal  conditions,  lias  well-developed  eyes. 
While  possessing  the  customary  number  of  limbs,  the  number  of  toes  in  the  American  type 
is  four  to  each  foot.  In  the  Kuropcan  Proteus  there  are  but  three  toes  to  the  front  and  two 
toes  to  the  hinder  limb.  In  a  yet  lower  form,  the  SIKI:\  S\i  \M\\m  K  of  the  South-eastern 
United  States,  a  yet  more  primitive  persistently  gill-bearing  condition  is  presented. 


Pond  Pickerel  (Lucius  Reticulatus) 


nail-Mouthed  Black  Bass  (Micropterus  Dolomieu) 


Red  Snapper 
(Neomoenis  Aya) 


(Eupomotis  Gibbosus) 


Brook  Trout 
(Salvelinus  Fontinalis) 


(Alosa  Sapidissima) 


Burgall  (.Cteaolabrus  Adspersus) 


Canadian  Red  Trout 


Bullhead  (Amiurus  Nebulosus) 


Mud-Fish  i  Araia  Calvai 


Yellow  Perch  (Perca  Flavescens) 


NORTH  AMERICAN  FOOD  AND  GAME  FISHES 


Photo  by 


AUSTRALIAN    LUNG-FISH 

This  jish  is  also  known  as  the  Burnett  River  Salmon 


BOOK  IV.     FISHES 


CHAPTER    I 

LUNG-FISHES  AND  CHIMERAS 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,   A. US.,   F.Z.S. 

THOUGH  amongst  the  lowest  of  the  backboned  animals,  the  Fishes  are  nevertheless 
an  exceedingly  interesting  group,  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the  possession  of 
fins,  which   are  divisible  into  two  series,  —  an  unpaired,   ranged  along  the   middle 
of  the  back  and  abdomen,   and   including  the  tail-fin ;    and  a  paired  series,  representing  the 
fore    and    hind    limbs    of  land   animals.     The    body    is    either    clothed   with   scales   or  naked, 
and,  being  perfectly  sustained  by  the  water,  needs  no  support  from  the  fins,  which  serve  as 
balancing-organs. 

In  the  brilliancy  and  beauty  of  their  coloration  fishes  display  a  variety  that  cannot  be 
excelled  by  any  other  animals.  Furthermore,  the  coloration  is  often  rendered  still  more 
beautiful  from  the  fact  that  it  can  undergo  rapid  changes  of  hue.  Frequently  this  coloration 
is  of  a  protective  character,  causing  the  fish  to  harmonise  with  its  surroundings,  and  so  escape 
the  observation  of  its  enemies.  The  colours  of  living  fishes  can  only,  for  the  most  part,  be 
indicated  in  the  present  pages  when  a  pattern  exists  by  the  formation  of  stripes  or  spots; 
but  the  wonderful  variations  in  the  form  of  the  body  will  probably  prove  a  revelation  to  many. 

LUNG-FISHES 

The  LUNG-FISHES  are  a  peculiarly  important  group,  inasmuch  as  they  form  a  connecting- 
link  between  the  class  Fishes  and  the  land-dwelling  Amphibians  —  the  class  containing  the 
Frogs  and  Toads  and  their  allies.  They  are  accorded  this  position  mainly  because,  like 
Amphibians,  they  possess  true  lungs,  which  almost  entirely  replace  the  gills,  the  breathing- 
organs  of  other  fishes. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  lung-fishes  is  the  AUSTRALIAN  BARRAMUXDI,  or  LUNG-FISH  OF 
QUEENSLAND  —  the  BURNETT  or  DAWSOX  SALMON  of  the  settlers.  It  lives  among  the  weeds  at 
the  bottom  of  muddy  rivers,  rising  frequently  to  the  surface  to  take  in  atmospheric  air  by  the 
lungs,  the  gills  alone  being  insufficient  for  breathing  purposes.  The  flesh,  which  is  salmon- 
coloured,  is  much  esteemed  as  food.  The  adult  fish  is  said  to  attain  to  a  weight  of  20  Ibs. 
and  a  length  of  6  feet. 

Other  lung-fishes,  eel-like  in  form,  occur  in  the  rivers  of  Africa  and  South  America.     The 

211 


212      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


African  species  is  perhaps  the  better  known  of  the  two.  On  the  approach  of  the  dry  season  it 
buries  itself  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  when  the  latter  becomes  dry  the  mud 
hardens,  holding  the  fish  a  prisoner  till  the  return  of  the  wet  season  several  months  later.  A 
considerable  number  of  these  fishes  have  from  time  to  time  been  dug  out  and  sent  to  England 
enclosed  in  the  mud  into  which  they  had  retreated.  The  writer  remembers  assisting  in  the 
liberation  of  some  during  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Oxford.  So  hard  had 
the  prison-walls  become  that  the  mass  had  to  be  plunged  into  tepid  water;  this  soon  brought 
about  a  dissolut:on  of  the  soil,  and  in  a  short  time  the  fishes  were  swimming  about  as  if  in 
their  native  river*  The  African  lung-fish  is  known  also  as  the  MUD-FISH ;  its  American  relative 
as  the  LEPIDOSIREN,  or  SOUTH  AMERICAN  Mr D-KISII.  In  the  American  species,  as  in  its  African 
relative,  the  fins  are  whip-like  in  form;  but  the  hinder  or  ventral  pair,  which  correspond  t<> 
the  hind  limbs  of  the  higher  vertebrated  animals,  are  remarkable  in  that  in  the  male  they 
develop  during  the  breeding-season  numerous  thread-like  processes,  richly  supplied  with  blood, 
the  function  of  which  is  as  yet  unknown. 

The  young,  both  of  the  African  and  South  American  mud-fishes,  bear  external  gills  closely 

resembling  those  of  the  tad- 
poles of  the  frog  and  other 
Amphibia ;  traces  of  these 
gills  remain  throughout  life 
in  the  African  form. 

CHIM  I.KAS 

Shark-like  in  their 
general  chaiacters,  the 
Cn:\l  ERAS,  now  briefly  con- 
sidered,  are  nevcrth 
regarded  as  constituting  a 
very  distinct  group  of  great 
antiquity. 

The  modern  representa- 
tives of  the  group  are  few  in 
number  fi\e  species  in  all. 
Of  these,  the  species  shcm  n  in 
the  accompanying  pi' 

graph  and  the  SEA-CAT  are  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  a  movable  tentacle  on  the  snout.  The 
under  surface  of  this  tentacle  is  armed  with  small  spines,  and  fits  into  a  hollow  in  the  head. 
The  first  back-fin  is  supported  in  front  by  a  strong  spine,  and  can  be  depressed  into  a  sheath 
in  the  body-walls.  The  teeth  take  the  form  of  large  plates  closely  united  with  the  ja\  s,  and 
studded  with  hardened  points,  or  "  tritors." 

One  species  widely  distributed  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  is  taken  usually  in  deep 
water;  it  is  the  largest  living  species,  often  attaining  a  yard  in  length.  Its  occurrence  is, 
however,  very  erratic,  months  elapsing  without  any  being  taken  ;  at  other  times  several  will 
be  caught  in  a  few  days.  A  closely  allied  fish  is  often  exposed  for  sale  in  the  Lisbon  markets, 
where  it  ranks  with  the  Sharks  as  a  food-fish. 

The  egg  of  the  BOTTLE-NOSED  CHIM.KKA  is  perhaps  the  only  egg  with  a  mimetic  resemblance 
to  a  foreign  object.  It  is  elliptical  in  form,  and  bordered  by  a  fringe,  so  a>  to  present  a  close 
resemblance  to  a  piece  of  seaweed. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  begin  the  description  of  the  great  group  of  Fan-  and  Fringe-firmed 
Fishes,  which,  brefly,  embrace  all  fishes  not  grouped  among  the  Lung-fishes,  t'hiin.eias,  or 
Sharks.  The  anatomical  characters  used  for  the  purpose  of  classifying  this  great  group  are 
not  discussed  here,  save  only  in  a  few  cases  of  prime  importance,  when  features  such  as  can 
readily  be  observed,  without  demanding  an  intimate  knowledge  of  anatomy,  are  selected. 


Fh.i, 


A.  S.  Kudlaad  V  Smi 


BOTTLE-NOSED    CHIMERA 

The  remarkable  structure  in  front  of  the  mouth  ii  probably  an  organ  of  touch 


• 


WHITE-PERCH 

7  he  H?  caited  tuhite  fetch  is  a  sptcifs  of  bass,  found  in  :fic  revert  of  the  United  States 


SEA-BASS 

This  h  anjtbf  American  member  t>f  the  Perflt  Tribt 
213 


CHAPTER     II 


THE   PERCH   FAMILY 

BY    JOHN    BICKKROYKE,   M.A. 


LARGE-MOUTHED    BLACK    BASS 

An  txiccdin^ly  gamy  fghur 


THE  thick-set, goldeii-bmnze, 
dark-barred,  hog-backed 
fish  known  as  tin-  I'rui  H 
has  many  striking  characteristics,  and 
is  remarkable,  among  other  things,  for 
the  vast  number  of  its  relations  scat- 
tered all  over  the  world.  So  numen  ms, 
indeed,  are  its  cousins  that  ichthy- 
ologists have  had  to  divide  the  1'erch 
Family  into  a  large  number  of  groups. 
There  are  various  species  of  perch 
found,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  fresh- 
waters  and  on  all  the  coasts  of  the 
temperate  and  tropical  regions. 

The  COMMON  ri-:ucn,  which  is 
widely  distributed  over  Europe, 
Northern  Asia,  and  North  Amen.  .1, 
is  properly  an  inhabitant  of  rivers, 

lakes  and  ponds,  but  sometimes  descends  to  brackish  water.  It  runs  up  to  about  5  Ibs.  in 
weight,  and  is  carnivorous,  eating  most  kinds  of  fish  small  enough  for  its  swallow,  including 
the  fry  of  its  own  species,  which  are,  in  some  waters,  an  excellent  bait. 

In    England    perch    spawn    in    the    spring,  the    eggs    being  held    in  a  band-like    mass  of 
gelatinous  matter  deposited  on  weeds  or  the  roots  of  trees  not  far  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.     The  spawn,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  often  collected  by  fish-culturists  and  hatched   <>nt. 
Swans  and  water-fowl  gener- 
allyeat  the  eggs  by themillion, 
and  wherever  perch  are  pre- 
served these  birds  should,  so 
far  as  possible,  be  kept  from 
the  water  during  the  spawn- 
ing-season.    At    Henley  and 
other  places  on  the  Thames 
those    interested    in    fishery 
preservation  place  xvirc  netting 
round  the  boughs  and  weeds 
where   perch    have  spawned, 
to    present    the    eggs    being 
eaten  by  swans  and  ducks. 
Perch  are  usually  termed 

HUH  A.  1C.  SivtlU.Km,  F.7..S.} 

voracious  fish,  but  when  large  BUTTKR-FISH 

are  extremely  shy  and  difficult  A  Mln., ./,»,  ,r,fifai  fatll  „/,*,  h&,.pacifo 

-z'4 


THE     PERCH    FAMILY 


215 


f  t>j  D 


.  W.  Shufttdt] 

AMERICAN    "SUN-FISH" 

Not  to  be  confounded  ivith  the  true  Sun-fake*  described  in  Chapter 


[M'aikingtin 


of  capture.  There  is  a  story 
told  oi  a  hungry  little  lake- 
perch  which  had  its  eye 
hooked  out  by  accident.  The 
angler,  leaving  the  eye  on  the 
hook,  lowered  it  into  the 
water  agahi,  and  a  moment 
after  hauled  out  a  one-eyed 
perch ! 

Among  the  species  of 
perch  found  in  British  waters 
are  the  RUFFE,  or  POPE,  a 
very  small  and  common  river- 
fish  of  no  great  value;  the 
HAS?,  a  fine  sporting  sea-fish, 
which  comes  up  the  estuaries 
of  rivers  to  spawn,  and  is 
much  sought  after  by  the  ama- 
teur sea-fisher;  the  COMBER, 
or  GAPER,  a  fairly  common 

fish  on  the  coasts  of  the  West  of  England ;  a  rare  sea-fish  known  as  llie  DUSKY  PERCH,  caught 
occasionally  off  the  South  of  England;  the  STONE-BASS,  also  called  the  WRECK-FISH,  from  its 
habit  of  following  wreckage  in  the  sea;  and,  lastly,  the  DENTEX,  a  rare  species,  not  often 
caught  off  the  British  coasts,  which  attains  the  weight  of  about  70  Ibs. 

On  the  Continent  there  is  the  PlKK-PERCH,  a  fish  having  the  appearance  of  a  cross  between 
a  pike  and  a  perch,  and  growing  to  25  or  30  Ibs. ;  this  voracious  species  is  found  in  the  lakes 
and  rivers  of  the  temperate  northern  zones,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  food.  In  the  tropics 
there  are  a  number  of  true  SEA-PERCHES,  which  rarely  enter  fresh-water ;  they  include  the 
AXTIIIAS,  most  beautifully  coloured  with  pink  and  yellow,  of  which  there  are  between  IOO 
and  200  species.  Some  of  the  tropical  sea- perches  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  and  there  are 
instances  recorded  of  bathers  having  been  attacked  by  them  at  Aden.  Several  monsters  are 
stuffed  in  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  Among  the  coral-islands  live 
many  very  beautifully  coloured  sea-perches  of  various  species.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  is  the  BOAR-FISH,  or  BASTARD  DORY,  which  has  a  prolonged  snout,  no  doubt  us<?d  for 
getting  out  its  food  from  the  crnnnics  among  rocks  and  other  awkward  places. 


CHAPTER     III 

SCALY-FINS,   RED  MULLETS,    SEA-BREAMS,    SCORPION-FISHES,    SLIML-HEADS, 
TASSEL-FISH,   A1E ACRES,   AND  SWORD-FISHES 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,   A.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 

FOR  quaintness  of  shape,  combined  with  beauty  of  coloration,  the  family  of  Scaly-f.nned 
Fishes  has  no  rivals.     The  name  by  which  they  are  collectively  known  refers  to  the  scaly 
covering  which  invests  the  bases  of  what   are  called  the  median  fins  —  the  fins  seated 
along  the   middle   of  the  back  and   abdomen.     A  large  number  of  distinct  species  have  been 
described,    the   majority   of  which  occur  in  tropical  seas,  and  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  coral-reefs;    but  some    frequent    the  mouths   of  rivers,  which  they  occasionally  ascend  for 
a   short   distance.     All   are   of  relatively  small   size,  of  carnivorous  habits,  and  but  little  used 
for  food. 

The    pattern   of  coloration   commonly  takes  the  form   of  bands  or  stripes,  those  in  which 
this  pattern  is  most  marked  being  known  as  ZEBRA-FISH.     One   of  the  most  beautiful  is  the 


2l6     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/•*.»*,  U'.  SaiilU-Kiril,  F.2.S.]  [j/,/ 

THE    MISCALLED    ARCHER-FISH 

&  named  on  account  if  in  tuffcieJ  habit  of  shooting  -water  at  inacts 


EMPEROR-FISH,  which  ranges 

from  the  east  coast  of  Africa 
to  the  Indian  and  Malayan 
seas.  The  ground-colour  <>f 
the  body  is  deep  blue,  rcli' 
by  some  thirty  golden-yello.v 
stripes  running  from  th.: 
shoulder  backwards  to  the 
tail.  Crossing  the  head  i> 
a  crescent-shaped  bar  of  black 
edged  with  yellow,  whiNt  a 
similarly  coloured  patch  runs 
upward  from  the  pectoral  tins 
to  within  a  short  distant 
the  top  of  the  back.  '1  hi- 
species,  which  attains  a  length 
of  15  inches,  is  highly  esteemed 
for  food  in  India.  The  most  beautiful  of  all,  perhaps,  is  the  zebra-fish  of  the  Indo-Malayan 
seas,  which  has  the  ground-colour  of  yellow,  striped  with  vertical  bars  of  blue  edged  \\itn. 
brown,  a  yellow  tail,  and  an  anal  fin  barred  with  narrow  blue  lines. 

A  tubed-shaped  month  is  a  common  feature  of  the  fishes  of  this  group,  and  two  Indian 
species  in  which  this  character  is  especially  well  developed  have  acquired  the  habit  of  shooting 
therefrom  a  drop  of  water  at  insects  resting  on  overhanging  foliage  fringing  the  sea  or  a 
the    banks  of  rivers.     Having  sighted   its  quarry,  it  would  seem  the    fish  moves  upwards  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  with    careful    aim    ejects    its    liquid    bullet    with    such    unerring 
precision  that  its  prey  is  invariably  knocked  down  and  speedily  seized.     On  this  account  these 
fishes    are    commonly    known    as  ARCHER-KISHKS.     The  archer-fishes  are  sometimes  kept    in 
tubs    of  water,    for    the    purpose    of  affording    amusement    to    their    captors.      Somehow    the 
.shooting   prowess  of  these  fishes  has  been  accredited  to  an  allied  form,  shown  in  the  ;\\> 
photograph. 

The    peculiar    shape    of  these  fishes  is  sufficiently  indicated   by  the  photograph    already 
mentioned,  but  a  large  series  would   be  necessary  to  show  the  numerous  variations,  some  •  •]' 
which  are  quite  remarkable.     The  brilliancy  of  the  coloration   is  probably  protective,  since  the 
most  brightly  coloured  forms  live  amongst  coral-reefs  built  by  gorgeous  polyps,  or  coral-anim 
so  that  amidst  such  surround- 
ings the  fishes  are  quite  in- 
conspicuous. 

The  R^D  MULLETS  occur 
chiefly  in  tropical  seas,  but 
•>ne  species  inhabits  European 
waters,  and  occur  sparsely 
around  the  British  Islands. 
Occasionally,  however,  these 
nshcs  visit  the  British  coasts  in 
vast  shoals,  more  than  5,000 
having  been  taken  in  a  single 
night  in  August,  1819,  in 
Weymouth  Bay,  whilst  in 
May.  1851,  IO.OOO  were  taken 
off  Yarmouth  in  one  week. 

Although  about  forty 
species  of  red  mullet  are 


flul,  I,   II  .    ,.,-.,.,- A,.  ,-.    /    . 

STRUM  I)    Kl  I)    Mt'I.I.ET 

The  htad  it  ernamenud  with  krittiar,:  r:  ar'.tn 


RED    MULLETS    AND    SEA-BREAMS 


217 


j 


.  Savilli-Kinl,  F.Z.S.] 

BROWN    SNAPPER 

The  snappers  are  esteemed  for  the  table 


known,  the  European  species 
is  the  most  prized  as  a  food- 
fish.  Its  fame,  indeed,  extends 
backwards  to  the  time  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  who  sought 
far  and  wide  for  large  speci- 
mens, paying  ruinous  prices 
for  them.  "  Then,  as  nowa- 
days," writes  Dr. Giinther,  "it 
was  considered  essential  for 
the  enjoyment  of  this  delicacy 
that  the  fish  should  exhibit 
the  red  colour  of  its  integu- 
ment. The  Romans  brought 
it,  for  that  purpose,  living 
into  the  banqueting-room, 
and  allowed  it  to  die  in  the 
hands  of  the  guests,  the  red 

colour    appearing    in    all    its      '  ~  fh.,,b,  ^,  Sm,,i,-ic,n,,  F.Z.S.]  [M,-;/,^.M.J« 

brilliancy  during  the  death- 
struggle  of  the  fish.  The 
fishermen  of  our  times  attain 

the   same  object  by  scaling    the   fish   immediately  after  its  capture,  thus  causing  a  permanent 
contraction  of  the  chromatophores  containing  the  red  pigment." 

Beneath  the  chin  of  the  red  mullets  will  be  noticed  two  long  finger-like  processes ;  these 
can  be  thrust  forward  and  moved  about,  or  laid  back  in  a  groove  between  the  sides  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  are  used  to  rake  about  in  the  sand  and  gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 

to  discover  burrowing  shrimps 
or  worms.  Even  dead  food 
they  are  said  to  feel  with 
these  barbels,  as  they  are 
called,  before  biting.  The 
red  colour  has  been  observed 
in  the  Marine  Aquarium  at 
Plymouth  to  become  darker 

/vUJ^>  Kftf}ffUfflffift  when  the  fish  rise  from   the 

"£."••>  XaSaaSwOfSK         '     '  ground,  and  to  pale  away  when 

they  descend. 

Two  forms  of  red  mullet 
occur  in  European  waters,  but 
it  is  not  yet  finally  settled 
whether  they  represent  distinct 
species.  The  one  is  the  plain 
RED  MuLLET.ofa  rich  carmine- 
red  above  and  silvery  white 
below  ;  the  other  the  STRIPED 
MULLET,  or  SUR-MUI.T.ET,  which  has  a  beautiful  red  colour  on  the  back  and  sides,  and  from 
three  to  five  bright  yellow  bands  passing  from  head  to  tail.  Till  recently  the  striped  form  was 
regarded  as  the  female  of  the  plain  red  mullet,  but  many  authorities  incline  to  the  view  that 
the  two  are  distinct  species. 

The  SEA-BREAMS  are  fishes  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions,  represented  by  a 
considerable  number  of  species.  Only  one  is  at  all  abundant  on  the  British  coasts,  and  this 


V- KM,  F.2.S.] 

RED    SEA-BREAM 

Some  species  of  sea-bream  occasionally  enter  fresh-iuater 


2l8       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/fcft  b,  1C. 


,  F.Z.S.] 

SNAPPER 

An  Australian  sftciti  of  Sta-hrc, 


occurs  especially  on  the  south 
and  south-west  coasts  of 
Knglaml  ami  Ireland.  It  is 
of  an  orange-scarlet  colour 
above,  and  somewhat  silvery 
on  the  sides,  with  a  large 
black  spot  on  the  shoulder. 
Several  species  of  sea- 
bream  occur  in  Australia, 
whore  they  are  known  as 
SNAPPERS.  One  of  the  largest 
of  these,  which  attains  a 
length  of  more  than  3  feet 
and  a  weight  of  over  40 
Ibs.,  is  not  only  considered 
excellent  eating,  but  is  also 
the  most  popular  sport- 
yielding  fish  of  that  colony. 

The      ancient      Unmans 

kept  a  species  of  sea-bream,  the  GlLT-HEAD,  in  their  vivariums,  where  it  grew  extremely  fat. 
This  species  is  said  to  stir  up  the  sand  with  its  tail,  to  discover  buried  shell-fish.  It  is 
particularly  fond  of  mussels,  and  the  noise  it  makes  in  crunching  them  between  its  jaws  is 
loud  enough  to  be  heard  by  the  fishermen. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Sea-breams  are  a  group  known,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  as  the 
THICK-RAVED  FISHES,  some  of  which  rank  as  of  prime  importance  among  the  food-fishes  of 
the  British  Colonies.  A  general  idea  of  the  shape  of  the  members  of  this  family  may  be 
gathered  from  the  photograph  of  an  Australian  GROPEK.  The  name  of  LO.\<;-KI\,  given  t<>  one 
species,  is  bestowed  on  account  of  the  fact  that  one  or  more  of  the  rays  of  the  breast-fin  on 
each  side  is  drawn  out  into  a  filament,  often  of  very  considerable  length,  which  is  used  as 
an  organ  of  touch.  In  other  species,  where  the  elongation  is  less,  and  more  rays  have  tinder- 
gone  modification,  an  auxiliary  organ  of  locomotion  is  the  result.  At  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  species  of  long-fin  are  very  abundant,  and  preserved  in  large  quantities  for  export. 

Other  members  of  this  family  lack  the  elongated  fin-rays  altogether.     The  fishes  known 
as  the  Tl'MPETERS  of  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  belong  to  this  section.     They  arc  considered 
by  the  colonists  the  best  flavoured  of  any  native  fishes,  and  are  eaten  smoked  as  well  as  fresh. 
But  two  species  are  known,      ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
one  ranging  from   30  to  60 
Ibs.  in  weight,  and  the  other, 
a  much  smaller  form,  scarcely 
attaining  a  weight  of  20  Ibs. ; 
the  latter  is  the  more  abun- 
dant of  the  two, though  con- 
fined   to   the   coast   of  New 
Zealand. 

In  the  SoikPioVMHir- 
we  have  a  small  group  in- 
cluding several  forms  remark- 
able for  their  ugliness,  having 
added  to  an  uncouth  shape 

skinny     appendages,     which,          /•*..»,  w.  *«<«..*.«,  t.x.s.-\  [M<ir.rj-.».s,* 

projecting    from    the    body,  KIN<;   SNAPPER 

resemble    rather     leaves    of  A  memktr  <///k  ;>•»/>  ,f  sii 


SCORPION-FISHES    AND    SLIME-HEADS 


219 


seaweed  than  parts  of  the  fish.  These  appendages,  by  their  waving  motion,  serve  either  to 
attract  other  fishes  or  to  afford  concealment  by  their  resemblance  to  the  surrounding  weeds. 
The  ground-dwelling  forms  have  some  of  the  rays  of  the  breast-fin  modified  into  finger- 
like  processes,  like  those  of  the  Gurnards,  by  which  they  both  crawl  and  feel.  Some  members 
of  the  family  bear  a  rather  close  resemblance  to  the  Sea-perches.  In  addition  to  their  ugli- 
ness, some  have  become  especially  offensive  by  the  transformation  of  certain  of  the  fin-spines 
into  poison-organs. 

One  of  the  ugliest,  and  at  the  same  time  most  dreaded,  of  the  family  is  the  STONE-FISH 
figured  on  page  619.  Each  spine  of  the  back  fin  is  grooved.  At  the  lower  end  of  these 
grooves  lies  a  pear-shaped  bag  containing  a  milky  poison,  which  is  conveyed  to  the  point  of 
the  spine  by  ducts  lying  in  the  grooves.  The  native  fishermen  carefully  avoid  handling 
these  fish;  but  persons  walking  with  bare  feet  in  the  sea  step  upon  the  spines,  and,  receiving 
the  poison  into  the  wound,  are  killed. 


e  k)  it'.   Sa-villi-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 


[Milfcrd-tn-Sia 


AUSTRALIAN    GROPER 

Highly  esteemed  as  a  food-fish 


All  the  scorpion-fish  are  carnivorous,  and  differ  from  the  majority  of  fishes  in  that 
they  produce  their  young  alive.  The  smallest  of  the  Spiny-finned  fishes  are  members  of 
this  group,  some  scarcely  exceeding  i .]  inch  in  length.  They  are  common  amid  the  coral- 
teefs  of  the  Pacific. 

Passing  over  some  comparatively  unimportant  members  of  this  family,  we  come  to  a 
small  group  of  vegetable-feeders  from  the  Indo-Pacific,  of  which  the  TEUTHIS  is  one  of  the 
best  known  representatives.  They  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  the  abdominal 
cavity  is  surrounded  by  a  complete  ring  of  bones,  and  that  the  air-bladder  is  forked  at  both 
ends.  Some  are  rather  brilliantly  coloured. 

The  SLIME-HEADS,  which  constitute  the  next  family,  derive  their  name  from  the  presence 
on  the  head  of  large  mucus-bearing  cavities  covered  with  a  thin  skin.  The  eyes  are  always 
of  great  size,  indicating  a  deep-sea  habitat,  or  at  least  a  depth  only  dimly  lighted.  All 
indeed,  save  two  species,  descend  considerably  below  the  surface,  one  species  having  been 
found  in  345  fathoms.  The  species  of  one  genus  are  believed  to  inhabit  still  greater  depths, 
for  their  eyes  are  extremely  small,  indicating  degeneration  through  disuse.  The  copious 
supply  of  slime  is  also  an  indication  of  a  deep-sea  habitat.  The  members  of  this  family 
vary  much  in  size  and  shape,  but  the  most  remarkable  of  all  is  a  small  and  rare  species 


220       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


!•*••>  tj  A.  S.  Kudltnd  V  Stm, 

INDIAN 


WEAVER-FISH 

Oni  eftkl  group  of  teorpion-fiihei 


found  off  Japan,  in  which  the 
scales  have  joined  together 
to  form  a  perfectly  solid 
armour,  whilst  the  paired  mis 
of  the  abdomen  have  been 
reduced  to  a  single  spine,  with 
a  few  vestiges  of  other  rays. 

The  next  family,  a  com- 
paratively small  one,  includes 
the  TASSEL-FISH,  so  called  from 
the  long  and  delicate  feelers 
springing  from  the  base  of 
the  breast-fins,  of  which  they 
originally  formed  a  part.  Vary- 
ing in  number  from  three  t<> 
fourteen,  these  feelers  can  be 
movel  independently  of  the  fins.  As  these  fishes  all  live  in  muddy  water,  and  have  the  e 
obscured  by  films,  such  tactile  organs  are  necessary,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  procure  their 
food.  In  some  species  they  attain  an  enormous  length.  The  flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  Some 
species  have  an  air-bladder,  which  yields  a  good  kind  of  isinglass,  and  forms  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  the  East  Indies.  The  majority  are  small  species,  but  some  attain  to  a  length  of  4  feet. 
No  less  important  than  the  preceding  group,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  are  the 
M  EAGRES,  a  family  of  coast-haunting  species  of  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  Atlantic  and 
Indian  Oceans,  exhibiting  a  special  preference  for  the  mouths  of  large  rivers,  into  which  they 
freely  enter.  Some,  indeed,  have  become  entirely  fresh-water  species. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  family  is  the  species  to  which  the  name  of  DkL'M  has 
been  given,  from  the  extraordinary  noise  which  it  produces  —  though  some  other  kinds  emit 
similar  noises.  "These  sounds,"  Dr.  Giinther  writes,  "  can  better  be  expressed  by  the  word 
'  drumming'  than  any  other.  They  appear  to  be  very  frequently  heard  by  persons  in  ves 
lying  at  anchor  of"  the  coasts  of  the  United  States,  where  these  fishes  are  very  common.  The 
precise  method  by  which  these  sounds  are  produced  is  not  known.  Since  they  are  accompanied 
by  a  tremulous  motion  of  the  vessel,  it  seems  mote  probable  that  they  are  due  to  the  beating 
of  the  tails  of  the  fish  against  the  bottom  of  the  ship  to  get  rid  of  the  parasites  with  which 
that  part  of  their  body  is  infested."  The  drum  attains  a  length  of  more  than  4  feet  and  a 
weight  of  over  100  Ibs. 

Though  forming  but  a  single  small  family,  the  SWORD-FISHES  are  nevertheless  to  be 
reckoned  amongst  the  most 
interesting  «f  living  fishes. 
Attaining  a  length  of  from 
12  to  15  feet,  exceeding 
vigilant,  pugnacious,  and 
powerful,  they  are  amongst 
the  most  formidable  of  all 
fishes.  They  derive  their 
name  from  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  upper  jaw,  which 
forms  a  huge,  tapering,  sword- 
like  weapon,  covered  along 
its  under-surface  with  numer- 
ous small  teeth.  They  attack, 

apparently   without   provoca-  RAGGED  SEA-SCORPION 

tion,  whales  and   other  large  A  »».w  rtfnunutii  •*  oftiu 


'*•"*  A-  '•  •'•  -'"•' 


Pht/la  ty   W.  Savillt-Ktnt,   f./i.o.j 


STONE-FISH 

A  species  of  scorpion-fish  dreaded  on  account  of  its  poisonous  spines 


_J 


IMilftrd-en-Sta 


MM*  h  W,  Sai.i!l,-K<nl,  f.Z.S.'] 


TASSEL-FISH 

Valued  for  the  isinglass  it  yields 
221 


\_Milftrd-™  Sea 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

cetaceans,  which  they  invari- 
ably succeed  in  killing  by 
repeated  thrusts  of  the  sword. 
It  appears  that  occasionally 
suonl-hshes  make  u  miM 
and,  after  the  fashion  of  l>"ii 
(Jui.xote,  tilt  at  windmills,  in 
the  shape  of  large  vessels, 
under  the  impression  that 
they  arc  whales.  But  this 
most  grave  error  of  judgment 
brings  with  it  a  heavy  penalty, 
in  that,  having  no  power  to 
make  effective  backward  move- 
ments, the  sword  remains 

fixed,  and  is  eventually  broken  off  in  the  struggle  for  freedom.  Frank  Buckland  reminds  us 
that  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London,  is  a  section  of  the  bow  of 
a  whaler  impaled  by  one  of  these  swords.  That  portion  of  the  sword  which  remains  is  i  foot 
long  and  5  inches  in  circumference.  "  At  one  single  blow,"  he  writes,  "  the  fish  had  plunged 
his  sword  through,  and  completely  transfixed  13!  inches  of  solid  timber.  The  sword  had  of 
course  broken  off  and  prevented  a  dangerous  leak  in  the  ship."  In  the  British  Museum  is 
a  second  specimen  of  a  ship's  side  in  which  the  sword  of  a  sword-fish  is  fixed. 


.  »,  A.  S. 


nd  A*  S.», 


SWORD-FISH 


Tlu  kuge  back-fiii  n  laid  ic  tc  often  used  ai  a  tail  -.vhtn  the  fih  it  foaling  near  the  surface  of 

the  water 


CHAPTER     IV 

HAIR-TAILS,  HORSE-MACKERELS,  SEA-BATS,  DORIES,  MACKERELS,  SUCKING- 
FISHES,  WEAl'ERS,  FROG-FISHES,  ANGLER-FISHES,  BULL-HEADS,  AND 
GURNARDS 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,   A.  L.  S.,    F.  2.S. 

OF  the  family  of  HAIK-TAII.S  perhaps  the  most  important  members  arc  the  Sr.MUUHn-  or 
Fkosr-KISH    and    the   SNOF.K.     The   first  is  common  in   the    Mediterranean    and    the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  extending  northwards  to  the  south  coast  of  Knglaml, 
where   it   occurs   at  rare   intervals.     It  is    also    known    in   New    Zealand,   where    it    is    called 
the  Frost-fish,  and  furthermore  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  delicious  fish  of  the  colony,  its 
flesh  being  fine,  tender,  and  of  delicate  flavour.     On  this  account  it  is  much  in  demand,  but 
the  supply  is  very  uncertain.     The  conditions  of  capture,  indeed,  of  this  t'i-~h  are   unp.ualleled 
in  the  annals  of  fishing,  for  it  can   be  taken   neither  with  the  rod  nor  the   net.      The  would-be 
captor  has  to  wait  patiently  under  favourable  conditions  on  the  seashore  for  the  fish  to  come 


Phttt  iy  ftr.j 


J  *ft 


Tkiijitk  ii  flu  knvuix  at  the  Barracuda 


• 


I'lwtograflicJ   &    colored    h\    II'.    Sa; •illc-Kcn:.    /•'.    '/..    5. 

WESTERN    AUSTRALIAN    SCARLET    ROCK-COD. 
A  member  of  the  Sea-Perch  family  having  excellent  edible  qualities. 


Phot.  -       colorcit    I'V    II.    Su;-ilI,--Kfiit.    !•'.    '/..    \ 

FREEMANTLE    DEVIL-FISH    or   ARMED    GURNARD. 
An  Australian  representative  of  the  Gum. ml  <\    Hull-head  family,  h.ivini;  s]>inrs  which  can  inflict  exceedingly  painful  wounds 


THE    SCABBARD-    OR    FROST-FISH 


223; 


and  cast  itself  up  on  the  beach. 
This  happens  with  tolerable  cer- 
tainty during  the  autumn  and 
winter  months,  when  the  sea  is 
calm  and  the  nights  frosty.  Then 
the  frost-fish  come  ashore  alive, 
wriggling  through  the  surf  on 
to  the  beach.  Two  explanations 
have  been  offered  for  this  extra- 
ordinary conduct.  One  is  that 
the  fish  commits  suicide ;  being 
pursued  by  a  shark  or  other  en- 
emy, it  prefers  uncertain  life  on 
land  to  certain  death  at  sea  !  The 
other  and  more  probable  hypothe- 
sis has  it  that  the  air-bladder  of  the 
fish  becomes  distended  to  enable 
it  to  reach  the  surface  for  food 
—  for  it  is  a  deep-sea  fish  —  and 
that  the  keen,  frosty  air  prevents 
it  from  compressing  the  bladder 
and  returning  to  the  depths ;  thus  it  gradually  drifts  into  shallow  water,  is  hurled  shorewards 
by  the  surf,  and  finally  wriggles  itself  on  to  the  beach  to  die.  The  long  stretches  of  sandy 
beach  a  frw  miles  from  Dunedin  are  a  favourite  resort  for  frost-fish  catching.  Two  or  three 
men  camp  out  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  overhanging  the  beach,  pitching  a  tent  and  lighting 
a  huge  fire,  so  as  to  render  life  bearable  during  the  long  vigils.  The  "fishing"  consists  in 
perambulating  the  beach  up  and  down  shortly  before  dawn,  and  keeping  a  sharp  look-out  in 
the  surf  for  the  silver  streak  which  betokens  the  approach  of  a  victim.  As  soon  as  a  fish  is 


Fhttt  b;  If.  Savllle-Km,  F.Z.S.] 

FRINGED    HORSE-MACKEREL 

Note  the  great  length  of  the  Jin-rays 


W«<  t,  RiinMd  Thliti  if  C».]  [Citatum  Latii,  W.   C. 

HORSE-MACKEREL 

The  strong  keel  formed  by  ridged  scales  running  Joivn  each  side  of  the  tail  is  a  characteristic  feature 


224.      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

descried,  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  seize  hold  of  it  and  drag  it  ashore,  if  it  has  not 
already  stranded  itself,  and  then  dispatch  it. 

The  BARRACUDA,  or  SNOEK,  is  likewise  a  New  Zealand  species,  attaining  a  length  of  5  feet 
It  is  found  also  at  the  Cape  and  South  Australia.  In  New  Zealand  the  flesh  is  exported  to 
Mauritius  and  Batavia  as  a  regular  article  of  commerce,  being  worth  £  1 7  per  ton. 

The  HORSE-MACKERELS,  or  SCADS,  are  represented  by  some  very  bizarre-looking  forms.  It 
is  a  large  family,  belonging  to  tropical  and  temperate  seas.  One  species,  the  COMMON  HOR-i  :- 


t  f. 


i 

*•*««  »,  W.  Stvilli-Knt,  F.Z.S.' 

JOHN    DORIES 


Tkttt  nvo  fhotografki  ihiKo  the  difference  in  the  jaws  -when  protruded  and  when  at  rest 

MACKEREL,  is  common  in  British  seas.  Many  members  of  the  family  have  the  hinder  porti  >n 
of  the  body  on  each  side  armed  with  large  plates,  well  seen  in  tlic  accompaiu  ing 
photographs;  others  have  the  median  fins  produced  into  long  filamentous  processes.  All  are 
eatable,  and  some  highly  esteemed  as  food.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  PII.OT-KISH  of 
tropical  and  temperate  seas,  occurring  occasionally  off  the  British  coasts.  It  derives  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  accompanying  ships  and  large  sharks.  From  this  habit  of  accompanying 
ships  it  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  a  sacred  fish,  since  they  considered  it  pointed  out 
the  way  to  embarrassed  sailors,  and  announced  the  vicinity  of  land  by  suddenly  disappearing. 
The  close  companionship  between  the  pilot-fish  and  the  shark  lias  excited  much  comment, 
many  observers  believing  that  the  former  was  of  great  use  to  the  latter  in  guiding  it  to  its 
food.  How  this  is  done  is  graphically  described  by  Dr.  Meyer,  who  writes:  "  The  pilot  swims 
constantly  in  front  of  the  shark;  we  ourselves  have  seen  three  instances  in  which  the  shark 
was  led  by  the  pilot.  When  the  shark  neared  the  ship,  the  pilot  swam  close  to  the  snout  or 
near  one  of  the  pectoral  fins  of  the  animal.  Sometimes  he  darted  rapidly  forwards  or  sidewards, 
as  if  looking  for  something,  and  constantly  went  back  again  to  the  shark.  \Yhcn  we  threw 
overboard  a  piece  of  bacon  fastened  on  a  great  hook,  the  shark  was  about  twenty  paces  from 
the  ship;  with  the  quickness  of  lightning  the  pilot  cane  up,  smelt  at  the  dainty,  and 
instantly  swam  back  again  to  the  shark,  swimming  many  ti.nes  round  his  snout  and  splashing, 
as  if  to  give  him  exact  information  as  to  the  bacon.  Tne  shark  now  began  to  put  himself 
in  motion,  the  pilot  showing  him  the  way,  and  in  a  moment  he  was  fast  upon  the  hook." 
As  Dr.  Giinther  remarks,  commenting  on  this  account,  one  may  entertain  reasonable  do'.ib*.  - 
to  the  usefulness  of  the  pilot  to  the  shark  in  this  instance!  It  is  probable  that  the  pilots 
follow  the  sharks  for  the  sake  of  feeding  on  fragments  scattered  by  the  latter,  and  also  for 
the  sake  of  picking  off  the  parasites  with  which  sharks,  in  common  with  other  large  fish,  are 
infested;  furthermore,  the  pilot,  being  but  a  small  fish,  obtains  greater  security  from  enemies 
when  in  the  company  of  its  giant  friend.  The  habit  of  seeking  the  company  of  more 
powerful  or  otherwise  offensive  animals  is  apparent  also  in  other  members  of  this  family,  the 


SEA-BATS    AND    DORIES 


225 


young  of  the  horse-mackerel  seeking  shelter  beneath  the  "  umbrella  "  of  a  jelly-fish  till  they 
are  big  enough  to  defend  themselves. 

But  the  most  remarkable  members  of  this  family  are  the  SEA-BATS.  Few  in  species  and 
confined  to  the  Red  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  and  Western  Pacific,  they  are  nevertheless  in  those 
regions  very  common.  Although  not  used  as  food-fishes,  they  are  of  extreme  interest  on  account 
of  their  shape,  which  is  nearly  oval  and  much  compressed  from  side  to  side,  and  the  form  of 
their  fins,  which  in  some  species  are  excessively  developed.  Young  sea-bats  differ  markedly 
from  the  adults  in  the  much  greater  length  of  the  fin-rays,  so  much  so  that  they  have 
frequently  been  described  as  distinct  species. 

We  pass  now  to  the  DORIES,  which  recall  the  Sea-bats  in  the  oval  and  compressed  form, 
of  .he  body.  The  resemblance  to  sea-bats  is,  indeed,  so  close  that  the  latter  are  frequently 
described  as  dories.  The  mouth  of  the  members  of  this  family  is  so  constructed  that, 
when  opened,  the  upper  jaw  is  thrust  forward,  and  the  whole  mouth  forms  a  kind  of  long  tube. 
Dories  inhabit  the  seas  of  the  temperate  regions,  two  species  being  fairly  common  in  British 
waters.  The  best  known  of  these  two  is  perhaps  the  JOHN  DORY,  the  largest  specimens 
of  which  attain  to  a  weight 
of  18  Ibs.  Mr.  Cunning- 
ham has  described  the  very 
peculiar  way  in  which  the 
dory  captures  its  prey.  "  It 
does  not,"  he  writes,  "  over- 
take it  by  superior  speed  like 
the  mackerel,  or  lie  in  wait 
for  it  like  the  angler,  but 
stalks  it  and  approaches  it 
by  stealth.  It.  is  able  to  do 
this  in  consequence  of  the 
extreme  thinness  of  its  body 
and  the  peculiar  movement 
of  its  hinder  dorsal  and 
ventral  fins.  The  dory  places 
itself  end  on  towards  the  fish 
it  desires  to  devour,  and  in 
this  position  it  is  evident 
that  it  excites  no  alarm  on 
the  part  of  its  prey.  The 
appearance  of  the  dory,  seen 
in  this  way,  is  a  mere  line 
in  the  water,  to  which  no 
particular  significance  can  be 
attached.  I  have  not  par- 
ticularly noticed  the  effect 
of  the  ribbons  of  membrane 
which  project  from  the  dorsal 
fin.  But  I  have  observed 
that  the  movements  of  the 
dory  are  very  gradual,  except 
in  turning ;  it  alters  the 
position  of  its  body  by  a 
turn  of  the  tail  or  side-fins, 
and  then  swims  forward  by 
vibrating  the  second  dorsal 


I  __ 


.  SaviUi-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 

LONG-FINNED    DORY 


This  sfecies  cltfscly  resembles  a  fossil  form.      It  has  nothing  to  do  -with  the  True  Dories,  but  it 
one  of  the  Coral-fahes,  and  is  placed  here  for  the  lake  of  contrast 


226       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


and  ventral,  a  movement  which  causes  very  slight  disturbance  of  the  water.  The  appearance 
of  the  dory  in  these  actions  is  suggestive  of  suppressed  excitement,  his  eyes  being  fixed  on 
his  prey.  I  do  not  recollect  seeing  him  actually  swallow  another  fish,  but  have  no  doubt  th.it 
he  gets  near  enough  to  a  sprat,  for  example,  without  alarming  it,  to  seize  it  by  the  suddm 
elongation  of  his  curious  jaws."  The  way  in  which  these  jaws  are  elongated  is  admirably 
shown  in  the  photograph  on  page  622. 

Passing  now  to  the  Mackerel  Family,  we  arrive  at  a  group  of  considerable  importance 
from  an  economic  point  of  view.  Extremely  active,  migrating,  and  predaceous,  mackerel  swim 
in  shoals  and  seize  their  prey  with  great  voracity,  hunting  merely  by  sight,  and  snapping  at 
anything  moving  through  the  water,  especially  if  it  is  silvery,  like  a  small  surface-fish.  The 
various  species  differ  greatly  in  size,  ranging  from  the  Common  Mackerel  of  about  18  inches 
long  to  the  giant  Tunny  weighing  nearly  half  a  ton. 

COMMON  MACKEREL  swim  in  vast  shoals,  or  "  schools,"  as  they  are  called,  and  one  half  a  mile 
wide  and  at  least  twenty  miles  long  is  on  record.  Mackerel  feed  on  the  young  of  other  il>h 
and  small  fish  generally,  and,  when  these  are  not  to  be  had,  on  minute  crabs  and  shrimps. 

They  are  very  prolific,  a 
single  mackerel  laying 
from  430,000  to  540,000 
eggs. 

TheTUNM  i:s  are 
amongst  the  largest  of 
the  surface-fishes  of  the 
ocean.  Abundant  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  they 
occur  occasionally  in 
British  w  a  t  e  r  s.  For 
centuries  the  flesh  of  the 
tunny  has  been  held  in 
high  regard  as  food,  and 
it  is  frequently  seen  in 
the  Lisbon  markets  at 
the  present  day.  The 
flesh,  which  is  as  red  as 
beef,  is  cut  up  and  sold 
by  weight.  The  BoNITO 
closely  resembles  the 
tunny,  but  is  a  much 
smaller  fish,  %vhich  preys  largely  upon  flying-fishes,  which  it  follows  for  long  distances. 

Peculiarly  interesting  are  the  SUCKING-KISHES.  The  name  by  which  they  are  commonly 
known  is  bestowed  on  account  of  the  presence  of  a  large  oval  sucker,  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  head  and  extending  backwards  over  the  shoulders  —  an  organ  formed  by  modification  of 
the  back-fin.  By  means  of  this  sucking-disk  these  fishes  are  enabled  to  attach  themselves  to 
sharks,  turtles,  ships,  or  any  large  object  floating  in  the  sea.  The  hold  which  they  obtain 
is  so  strong  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  remove  them  by  force.  Being  poor  swimmers, 
this  method  of  transportation  enables  them  to  pass  rapidly  to  fresh  feeding-grounds. 

The  natives  of  Zanzibar,  Cuba,  and  Torres  Straits  are  said  to  employ  sucking-fishes  in 
the  capture  of  sleeping  turtles,  the  fish  being  secured  by  a  ring  round  the  tail,  and  liberated 
as  soon  as  a  sufficiently  near  approach  to  the  quarry  has  been  made.  About  ten  different 
species  are  known,  the  bulkiest  of  which  attains  a  length  of  2  feet  and  a  weight  of  about 
8  Ibs.,  a  longer  but  more  slender  species  measuring  3  feet. 

Carnivorous,  of  small  size,  and  feeble  swimming-powers,  the  family  of  tin-  \Vi  \VKKS  are 
remarkable  rather  for  their  disagreeable  qualities  than  anything  else,  though  at  least  one 


P*.r«  tj  gilnMd  Tliiili  <V  C..]  \llun.ir,  Lam,  IC.C. 

JOHN    DORY 

h  ikt  tenlrt  of  talk  ade  it  a  round  black  sfot  lurrcunJcJ  by  a  fait  ytllmo  ring 


WEAVERS    AND    FROG-FISHES 


227 


PI,,!,  t,  If.  Savillt-Ktr.l,  F.Z.S.] 

SUCKING-FISH 

By  means  of  the  sucker  on  the  top  of  its  head  this  fish  attaches  itself  to  ships  and  larger  fishes 

species  is  declared  to  be  excellent  eating.  The  STAR-GAZER  is  a  particularly  ugly-looking  fish, 
especially  noteworthy  in  that  the  eyes,  which  are  on  the  top  of  the  head,  can  be  raised 
and  depressed  at  pleasure,  whilst  the  heavy  jaw  is  armed  with  a  freely  moving  tentacle,  which, 
waving  about  in  the  current  of  water  drawn  in  at  the  mouth,  serves  as  a  lure  to  attract  small 
fishes,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  concealed  between  stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

The  COMMON  WEAVER  is  a  well-known  British  fish,  much  dreaded  on  account  of  the 
poisonous  wounds  which  it  inflicts  unless  most  carefully  handled,  the  poison  being  introduced 
by  the  spines  of  the  back-fin  and  gill-cover.  No  special  poison-organs  seem  to  be  developed, 
but  the  mucous  secretion  around  the  spines  has  poisonous  properties.  As  the  flesh  of  this  fish 
is  extremely  palatable,  fishermen  remove  the  spines  at  once  directly  after  capture.  Should  a 
wound  be  inflicted,  great  suffering  and  occasionally  death  follows. 

Passing  over  one  or  two  unimportant  groups,  we  come  to  the  family  of  the  FROG-FISHES, 
which,  but  for  the  fact  that  many  of  its  members  are  poisonous,  calls  for  no  special  comment 
here.  One  species,  however,  from  the  coasts  of  Central  America,  possesses  the  distinction  of 
having  the  most  highly  developed  poison-organs  of  any  fishes,  being  equalled  only  by  the 


t- 


Ptuli  by   KlinMd  Thillt  &  Co.] 


LARGER    WEAVER 

The  spines  of  the  first  back-fin  and  of  the  gill-cover  are  highly  poisonous 


__.  j 

[Chtncir,  Lant,  W.C. 


228       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Venomous  Snakes.  The  poison-weapons  are  a  spine  on  the  gill-cover  and  two  spines  of  the 
back-fin.  The  former  is  of  the  same  shape  as  the  hollow  venom-fang  of  a  snake,  perforated 
at  both  ends.  A  little  bag  containing  the  poison  lies  at  the  base  of  the  spine,  and  \\lun 
pressed  by  the  spine  as  it  makes  its  puncture  ejects  its  contents  into  the  body  of  the  latter, 
whence  it  escapes  from  the  hole  in  the  top.  The  structure  of  the  back-spines  is  similar. 

The  family  of  the  ANGLER-FISHES  contain  more  strange  forms  than  any  other.  Living 
on  the  sea-bottom  and  seeking  their  prey  by  stealth,  angler-fishes  do  not  need  powerful 
swimming-muscles;  consequently  the  size  of  the  body  and  tail  has  become  considerably 
reduced,  so  that  the  head,  relatively  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  is  unusually  large.  The  h< 
jaws,  and  belly  are  indeed  of  great  size  and  capacity.  The  side  or  paired  fins  are  nut 
used  for  swimming,  but  have  become  modified  to  serve  as  feet,  enabling  the  fish  to  shuttle 
along  the  ground.  A  further  remarkable  feature  of  these  fishes  is  seen  in  the  back-fin, 
the  rays  of  which  are  very  long,  the  foremost  being  provided  with  a  flag-like  flap  of  skin  .it 


ANGLER-FISH 

Ttii  Udeoui  sfecitt  ii  also  called  the 

• 

the  top,  extremely  sensitive  to  touch,  and  playing  a  very  important  part  in  the  capture  of 
food.  It  seems  that  the  fish  commonly  lies  concealed  on  the  s.-.i-lmttoin,  with  this  "flag" 
erected.  From  its  general  resemblance  to  the  surrounding  seaweed  it  is  quite  inconspicuous, 
so  that  passing  fishes  take  no  trouble  to  avoid  it.  If  by  any  chance  they  should  touch  it, 
however,  the  jaws  beneath  open  instantly,  and  the  unfortunate  trespasser  is  suddenly  engulfed. 
This  elaborate  and  sensitive  mechanism  has  been  likened  to  a  spring-trap,  which  is  always  M-t, 
and  never  betrays  its  presence.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  this  flag  serves  also  as  a  1 
passing  fishes  being  occasionally  attracted  by  the  waving  flap  of  skin.  Should  they  become 
sufficiently  curious  as  to  proceed  to  touch  it,  capture  in  the  manner  above  described  is  certain. 
Certain  deep-sea  forms  have  a  luminous  organ  in  the  place  of  the  flap  of  skin,  and  this 
certainly  seems  to  act  only  as  a  lure. 

Angler-fishes  are  found  all  over  the  world ;   some,  as  we  have  seen,  arc  bottom-fishes,  s,,me 
inhabit  deep  sea,  whilst  others  lie  hidden  amongst  floating  seaweed,  to  which  they  cling  by 


BULL-HEADS     AND     GURNARDS 


229 


means  of  their 
arm-like  fins.  Only 
one  species  occurs 
in  British  waters. 
Its  method  of 
spawning  is  remark- 
able, in  that  the 
eggs  are  laid  in  the 
form  of  large  raft- 
like  sheets,  which 
float  on  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  The 
number  of  eggs  laid 
by  a  single  fish  has 
been  computed  to 
be  1,345,000.  A 
single  sheet  of 
spawn  may  measure 
from  2  to  3  feet 
in  breadth  and  from  i 
25  to  30  feet  long. 
The  BULL- 
HEADS  and  GUR- 
NARDS, constituting 
the  next  family,  are 
characterized  by  the 


Photo  by  Saville-Kent,   F.Z.S.]  IMitford-m-Sea 

BUTTERFLY -GURNARD 
The  head  of  all  gurnards  is  encased  in  an  armour  of  bony  plates 


spiny  armature  of  the  head  and  the 


[Chancery  Lane,  W.  C. 


Photo  by  Reinhold  Thielc  &  Co.] 

RED-GURNARD 

The  curious  Jinger-like  processes  are  used  as  organs  of  touch  as  ivell  as  locomotion 


great  size  of  the  breast-fins.  The 
former  are  represented  in  British 
waters  by  four  species,  one  of 
which,  the  MILLER'S-THUMB, 
inhabits  fresh-water.  The 
marine  species  include  the  SEA- 
SCORPION  and  FATHER-LASHER. 
The  BULL-HEADS  on  the 
Indian  and  Australian  coasts  are 
represented  by  the  closely  allied 
FLAT-HEADS,  or  CROCODILE- 
FISHES,  in  which  the  head,  as  its 
name  implies,  is  much  depressed, 
and  fully  armed  with  spines, 
which  are  highly  poisonous,  and 
cause  a  violent  irritation.  These 
fishes  live  in  shallow  water, 
lying  on  the  bottom,  with  which 
their  colours  harmonize  so  com- 

,  pletely  that  they  are  practically 
invisible.  The  very  large  ventral 
fins — those  seen  in  the  photo- 
graph immediately  behind  the 

.  breast-fins — are  of  great  use  in 
locomotion. 

The    GURNARDS    are    well- 
known   fishes,    common    on    the 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Him  kj  If.  S«v(/;«-/r/»f,  F.Z.S.] 

BAR-TAILED    FLAT-HEAD 
A  tkallow-watt'  fik 


».  If.  Sivil/t-KiKl,  F.Z.S.]  •  ; 

ROCK    FLAT-HEAD 

About  forty  iftciei  of  flat-  lit  adi  an  knt,'.i<n 


coasts  of  Britain,  and  extending  from  tropical  to  arctic  seas.  Their  curiously  shaped  head-; 
give  them  a  very  quaint  appearance.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  peculiarities  of  those  fishes 
is  the  separate  condition  of  some  of  the  rays  of  the  breast-fins,  which  form  finger-like  organs, 
used  to  feel  the  ground  and  rake  over  loose  stones,  to  discover  small  shrimps  and  other 
animals  hidden  underneath.  Furthermore,  the  gurnards  are  peculiar  in  that  they  arc  enabled 
to  communicate  one  with  another  by  means  of  sounds  produced  by  the  expulsion  of  air  from 
one  compartment  of  the  air-bladder  to  another.  The  females  are  much  more  common  than 
the  males,  and  also  slightly  larger.  The  young  are  remarkable  for  the  enormous  size  of  the 
breast-fins,  though  even  in  the  adult  these  are  unusually  large. 

Close  allies  of  the  Gurnards  are  the  FLYING-GURNARDS,  which,  by  reason  of  the  extreme 
development  of  the  breast-fins,  are  enabled  to  take  flying'leaps  out  of  the  water.     (  >ne  >p< 
is  common   in   the    Mediterranean.     The   flying-gurnard    is    not    to   be   mistaken    for    the   true 
"  flying-fish,"  or  flying-herring,  described  later. 

The  curious  mail-clad  ARMED  BULL-HEAD,  or  I'<K;<;K,  commonly  taken  in  shrimp-net-.,  i-,  an 
ally  of  the  flying-gurnard. 


CHAPTER    V 

LUMP-SUCKERS,    GOBIES,    BLE\7NIES,    BARRACUDAS,    GREY  MULLETS, 
STICKLEBACKS  AND   THEIR  ALLIES,   GARPIKE,  ./.\7) 


BY    W.    P.    PVCRAFT,    A.L.S.,    F./.>. 

UGLY  in  appearance  and  carnivorous  in  habits,  the  Sucker-fish  Family  are  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  large  round  sucker  on  the  belly,  with  which  they  adhere  to  n>eks. 
Furthermore,  the  sucker-fishes  are  remarkable  for  the  softness  of  their  skeleton,  which 
may  be  cut  through   at  any  point  with  an   ordinary   knife.     The  male  lump-sucker  is  smaller 
than  the  female,  but  much  more  brightly  coloured,  especially  during  the  breeding-season.  \vh<-n 
he  dons  a  livery  of  blue,  scarlet,  and  yellow.     He  is  also  a  model  parent,  always  remaining  near 
the  eggs  and  keeping  a  constant  stream  of  fresh   water  running  over  them   by  the  action  of 
his  breast-fins.     A   single   female   may   produce   as   many  as    MO.OOO  eggs  in  a   single  season. 
In  Scotland  the  male  is  known  as  the  <  '<  »  K  and  the  female  as  the    III  \    I'xmu.K.     The  species 
is  more  common  off  the  coasts  of  Scotland  than  elsewhere  in  the  British  Islands. 

Like  the  Lump-suckers,  the  G<mil-;s,    which    form   the    next   family,  have   the   ventral  fins 
modified  so  as  to  form  a  sucking-disk,  which  is  used  as  an  anchor.      But   the  gobies  arc   easily 


THE    GOBY    FAMILY 


231 


distinguished  by  their  smaller  size,  elongated  bodies,  hard  skeleton,  and  the  disposition  and 
structure  of  the  fins,  characters  which  need  not  be  discussed  further. 

One  species,  the  SPOTTED  GOBY,  or  POLE-WING,  found  in  the  Thames,  is  noteworthy 
on  account  of  its  nest-building  habits.  The  male  chooses  the  empty  shell  of  a  cockle  or 
mussel,  selecting  one  with  its  concave  surface  downwards.  Beneath  this  the  sand  is  cleared 
away  and  cemented  by  a  special  glue-like  secretion  formed  by  the  skin  of  the  fish.  A  cylindrical 
tunnel  is  then  built  to  give  access  to  the  nest,  and  the  whole  is  covered  over  with  loose 
stones.  In  the  nest-chamber  formed  by  the  shell  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  male  immediately 
after  mounting  guard  over  them  till  they  hatch,  which  they  do  in  about  nine  days. 

Another  species,  the  PELLUCID  GOBY,  is  remarkable  in  that  its  whole  life's  course  is  run 


j 


f  >1M  bi  RtinMd 


i  &=  Co 


[Lhanitrr  Tar,,.  If.C. 


LUMP-SUCKER 

Known  a/so  as  the  Cock  and  Hen  Paddle 


in  a  single  year.  In  June  and  July  the  eggs  are  laid;  they  are  hatched  in  August;  by  the 
time  winter  has  arrived  the  fish  have  reached  maturity,  and  die  off  in  the  following  July  and 
August,  so  that  in  September  only  the  fry  are  to  be  met  with. 

One  of  the  strangest  of  all  fishes  is  a  member  of  the  Goby  Family.  This  is  the 
WALKING-FISH,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  spending  most  of  its  time  on  the  mud-banks  of 
rivers,  or  on  the  roots  of  trees  growing  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  late  Surgeon-General  Day, 
describing  these  fishes  as  he  saw  them  along  the  side  of  the  Burmese  rivers,  writes  that  at 
first  sight  they  look  like  large  tadpoles.  When  suddenly  startled  by  something,  away  they  go 
with  a  hop,  skip,  and  a  jump  inland  among  the  trees,  or  on  the  water  like  a  flat  stone  or 
piece  of  slate  sent  skimming  by  a  schoolboy.  When  climbing,  the  breast-fins  are  used,  as  if 
they  were  arms,  to  grasp  the  boughs.  If  placed  in  deep  water,  these  fishes  are  speedily 
drowned  ! 


232     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS   OF    THE    WORLD 


The  Bl.ENNlES  are  fishes  whose  skins  are  soft,  slimy,  and  quite  scaleless,  or  at  most 
covered  with  very  tiny  and  degenerate  scales.  The  general  form  of  the  body  may  be  seen  in 
the  photograph  below.  They  arc  shore-fishes,  lurking  about  in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  among 
seaweed,  or  under  stones,  and  occurring  generally  along  the  coasts  of  temperate  and  tropical 
regions.  The  species  known  as  the  SEA-CAT  or  WOLF-FISH  is,  however,  a  deep-water  form. 

As  a  rule  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  hollow  places  between  stones  or  rocks;  but  in  the 
BUTTER-FISH,  or  GUNNEL,  the  eggs  are  adhesive,  and  the  parents  roll  them  into  a  ball  by 
coiling  their  bodies  round  them.  Furthermore,  since  the  parents  are  frequently  found,  under 
natural  conditions,  coiled  round  these  masses  of  spawn,  it  appears  that  they  adopt  this  method 
of  guarding  their  treasures.  Some  species  bring  forth  their  young  alive. 

The  largest  of  the  family  is  the  WOLF-FISH,   whose  jaws  are  armed  with  very   p<meitul 
teeth,  able  to  crush  the  hardest  shells,  such  as  those  of  the  whelk.     Sea-urchins  and  crabs 
also  eaten. 

We  pass  on  to  a  group  comprising  three  families  —  the  BARRACUDAS,  SAND-SMELT-,  and 
GREY  MULLETS. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  two  very  distinct  fishes  are  known  as  BARRACUDAS,  one  of 

which  we  have  already  described 
under  the  name  of  Snoek.  The 
forms  described  here  as  barracudas 
are  large,  voracious  fishes  living 
in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  SIM-;. 
and  evincing  a  preference  for  the 
coast  rather  than  the  open  se.i. 
Attaining  a  length  of  8  feet  and 
a  weight  of  40  Ibs.,  they  are  a 
source  of  danger  to  bathers.  They 
are  very  frequently  used  as  ! 
though  in  the  West  Indies  such 
food  is  attended  with  some  danger, 
as  the  flesh  is  often  poi.-oin  'ii>. 
from  the  fish  having  fed  on  smaller 
poisonous  lis'nes. 

The  SAND-SMELTS  are  small 
carnivorous  species  inhabiting  the 
seas  of  temperate  and  tropical 
regions.  Many  enter  fresh-water, 

and  some  have  become  entirely  acclimatised  there.  Some  species  bear  a  very  close  resemblance 
to  the  true  smelt,  from  which,  however,  they  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  their  small, 
spinous,  first  back-fin.  The  young  of  at  least  one  small  group  or  genus  of  this  family  arc 
remarkable  for  their  habit  of  clinging  together  for  some  time  after  they  arc  hatched  in  dense 
masses  and  almost  incredible  numbers. 

The  GREY  MULLETS  are  brackish-water  fishes,  feeding  on  vegetable  growths  and  minute 
shell-fish.  They  also  suck  up  large  quantities  of  sand  into  the  mouth  for  the  sake  of  the 
minute  organisms  contained  therein;  much  of  this  is  passed  on  into  the  stnm.ich,  which  is 
thick  and  muscular,  like  that  of  many  birds.  Altogether  some  seventy  species  of  grey  mullets 
are  known,  the  majority  of  which  attain  a  weight  of  about  4  Ibs.,  but  there  are  many  which  grow 
to  10  or  12  Ibs.  All  are  eaten,  and  some  highly  esteemed. 

The  FLUTE-MOUTHS,  STICKLEBACKS,  and  T<>KT<>ISI  -1  -MU s  arc  three  closely  allied  and 
extremely  interesting  families.  The  first  are  really  gigantic  marine  sticklebacks,  in  which  the 
jaws  arc  produced  into  a  long  tube.  They  are  shore-fishes,  entering  brackish  water,  and 
confined  to  sub-tropical  and  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indo-1'acific. 

Of  the  STICKLEBACKS  there  are  several  species,  some  of  which  are  entirely  salt-water  I; 


Hun  t 


[Chanttr)  Lan 


BUnr.ttt 


BLENNY 

i't  toftt  shtn\t  ua/e/esi  ttirtt 


o  by  If.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.] 


NORTHERN    MULLET 

A  member  of  the  family  of  Grey  Mullets 


[  MHford-en-Sta 


Phefo  by  Reinhold  Thitlt  fe1  Co.] 


RED    MULLET 

Not  related  to  the  Grey  Mullet^  this  species  is  placed  here  for  the  sake  of  contract 

233 


234     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/*«.»,  W   StvUI..K,M,  f.Z.S.] 


GARPIKES 

Frequently  called  Guard-fiikei 


whilst  others  enjoy  the 
rather  unusual  distinction 
of  being  able  to  live  in 
either  fresh  or  salt  water, 
even  when  rapidly  trans- 
ferred from  one  to  the 
other.  The  small  spe 
commonly  inhabiting 
ponds  and  ditches  can  sus- 
tain changes  of  this  kind 
with  impunity.  These 
last  arc  very  fenuioi.s. 
One  kept  in  an  aquarium 
devoured  in  five  hours 
seventy-four  young  dace 
about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long.  They  occa- 
sionally occur  in  v.ist 
shoals,  and,  according  to 

the  naturalist  Pennant,  appear  in  the  river  VVelland,  in  Lincolnshire,  once  in  seven  years  in 

amazing  shoals,  so  that  a  man  employed    in  collecting  them  earned  four  shillings  a  day  by 

selling  them  at  the  rate  of  a  halfpenny  a  bushel  ! 

The  salt-water  species,  or  FlFTEEN-SPINED  STICKI.KHACK,  is  less  well  known.      Like  its  fresh- 

water  relative,  it  is  a  nest-builder,  and  the  male  defends  the  eggs  and  young  with  great  courage. 
The  TORTOISE-FISHES  may  serve  as  the  representatives  of  the  last  family  of  this  group.    They 

are  very  remarkable  fishes,  being  invested  in  a  wonderful  bony  cuirass,  formed  by  a  modification 

of  the  skeleton,  similar  to  what  has  taken  place  among  the  Tortoises  and  Turtles.     The  body  is 

so  thin  that  it  looks  as  if  it  had  been  artificially  compressed,  and  is  semi-transparent.     Three 

species  are  known  from  the  tropical  Indo-Pacific  and  three  from  other  seas;  besides  these  are 

four  smaller  and  less  perfectly  armed  forms,  one  of  which,  the  TKL  .Mrin-nsn,  or  HEU.I>\V.S-H>H, 

occurs  rarely  off  the  south  coast  of  England. 

The  GARI'IKE  and  FLYING-FISHES  are  both  interesting,  especially  the  latter.     The  garpike 

is  represented  by  several  species,  easily  recognised  by  the  long,  pointed  jaws.     These  fishes 

are   furthermore   peculiar   in 

that  the  bones  are  green,  a 

colour   which    remains   even 

after    cooking,   and    on    this 

account  some  object  to  eating 

them,  supposing  the  unusual 

colour  to   indicate  unsound- 

ness.   The  elongated  jaws  are 

not  developed  in  the  young 

fish,  and,  strangely  enough. 

this  character  is  acquired,  the 

lower  jaw  grows   faster  than 

the  upper.     In  some  species 

the  lower  jaw  remains  perma- 

nently the  longer  ;  hence  they 

are  known  as  I  IAI.I  -r.i:.\KS. 

The   FI.YIM.-I  i-iii  s,  or          '         •' 

Fl.YIM.-Ill.kklNi.S,     like     the 

Fly  ing-gurn  a  rds    already  r*< 


..'..-  L.M..- 

I'lIM-lISl! 

k,  a<  /*;</,*  /.  »/«»  fa;.,j,  u  realty  «i»f«««  ««<•>/•  j 


FLYING-FISHES 


235 


noticed,  are  enabled,  by  reason  of  the 
great  development  of  the  breast-fins, 
to  take  extended  journeys  through 
the  air.  The  flight  of  these  fishes 
is,  however,  not  quite  the  same  as 
true  flight,  inasmuch  as  the  fins  serve 
mainly  as  a  parachute,  and  do  not,  by 
sustained  vigorous  movements,  propel 
the  body  through  the  air,  like  the 
\\ings  of  bats  and  birds.  Darting  out 
of  the  water  when  pursued  by  an 
enemy  or  frightened  by  a  passing 
vessel,  these  fish  are  borne  along 
by  the  wind,  the  speed  at  first  being 
very  considerable,  exceeding  indeed 
that  of  a  ship  going  ten  miles  an 
hour.  At  a  single  flight  they  may 
cover  as  much  as  500  feet,  but  are 


P)M,  h  A.  X.   Rudland  &  Sin, 


FLYING-FISH 

More  than  forty  distinct  species  of  this  family  are  knoiurt 


quite    unable    to    steer    themselves, 

except  when,  during  their  course,  the  tail-fin  is  immersed  in  the  water,  when  by  a  stroke 
from  one  side  to  the  other  the  direction  may  be  changed  from  left  to  right,  or  vice  versA, 
as  the  case  may  be.  By  day  they  will  avoid  ships,  but  by  night,  when  they  are  unable  to 
see,  "  they  frequently  fly,"  writes  Dr.  Giinther,  "  against  the  weather-board,  where  they  are 
caught  by  the  current  of  air  and  carried  upwards  to  a  height  of  20  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  water,  while  under  ordinary  circumstances  they  keep  close  to  it." 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE  WRASSE-LIKE   FISHES 

BY    W.   P.  PYCRAFT,  A.L.S.,  F.7..S. 

THE  members  of  the  four  families  noticed  in  this  chapter  are  remarkable  for  their  won- 
derful coloration.     The  species  of  the  first  family,  from  their  peculiarly  striking  re- 
semblance to  the  Scaly-finned  group,  share  with  them  the  name  of  CORAL-FISHES.   This 
resemblance  is  a  very  remarkable  one.     Occurring,  like  the  Scaly-fins,  more  abundantly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  coral-reefs,  they  also  resemble  the  latter  not  only  in  shape,  but  also  in  colora- 
tion, the  same  pattern  being  often  common  to  members  of  both  families. 

To  this  family  belongs  the  remarkable  fish  known  as  the  AMPHIPRION,  which  makes  its 
home  in  the  interior  of  an  enormous  species  of  sea-anemone  measuring  2  feet  across.  When 
first  discovered  by  Mr.  Saville-Kent,  it  was  believed  that  the  fish  had  been  swallowed  —  a  view, 
however,  which  was  speedily  rejected,  when  it  was  found  that,  if  ejected  by  means  of  a  stick, 
it  invariably  returned.  Thus  the  anemone  is  obviously  to  be  regarded  as  host,  and  not  as 
captor.  More  than  this,  from  the  facts  so  far  to  hand,  it  appears  that  this  strangely  assorted 
pair  are  mutually  dependent  on  one  another,  at  least  to  a  large  extent  —  the  fish  undertaking 
to  supply  the  larder,  whilst  the  anemone  in  return  affords  shelter  from  enemies.  The  part 
played  by  each  is  as  follows: — The  fish,  which  is  very  conspicuous,  wearing  a  livery  of 
vermilion  crossed  by  three  bands  of  white,  sallies  forth  and  swims  about  till  it  attracts  the 
attention  of  some  other  carnivorous  member  of  its  class,  on  which,  if  it  gives  chase,  the 
amphiprion  returns  with  all  speed  to  its  living  cave,  and  quickly  disappears  down  its  mouth. 
The  pursuer,  blundering  against  the  outspread  tentacles,  is  immediately  paralysed  by  a  shower 


THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


La*,,  If.  C. 

SPOTTED    WRASSE 

On  account  of  ikcir  greatly  thickened  lift  tvraiiet  are  alto  kiumn  at  Lif-fiket 


of  stinging-darts  which  proceed 
therefrom  as  a  result  of  the 
shock,  and,  rendered  insensible, 
becomes  the  spoil  of  both. 
Thus  the  active  fish  plays  the 
part  of  a  lure,  and  in  return 
is  afforded  shelter. 

The  WRASSES  proper  may 
be  distinguished,  ami  >ngs[ ,  aher 
things,  by  their  thickened  lips 
-  hence  the  name  Lip-fishes 
given  them  by  German 
naturalists  —  by  the  greatly  ex- 
tended back-tin,  the  greater 
part  of  which  is  spinous.  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  : 

which  need  not  be  discussed  here.     They  are  shore-fishes,  living  in  the  neighbourhood  of  u 
covered  rocks,  or  in  tropical  seas,  where  they  are  most  abundant,  amid  coral -n  ,  fs,     Most  .„•,. 
brilliantly,   many   gaudily  coloured,   iridescent   hues  frequently    adding  to    the    beauty    termed 
by  the  permanent  deposit  of  coloured  pigments  in   the  scales.     Some   grow  to   a   l.u 
specimens  not   seldom  exceeding  a  weight  of  50  Ibs.,  and   these  are  the  most  esteem. 
food-fishes,  the  smaller  species,  as  a  rule,  being  regarded  as  of  inferior  qualitv. 

A  well-known  British  species  is  the  STRIPED  or  RED  WRASSE,  the  sexes  ,,f  uhich  exhibit 
a  remarkable    variation    in  colour,  the    male   having   the   body    marked    with  bin  j  or 

a  blackish  band,  whilst  the  female  has  two  or  three  large  black  blotches  across  the  tail.  A 
second  British  species,  the  BAI.LAX  WRA>M-:,  is  bluish  green  in  colour,  with  the  scales  and 
fin-rays  reddish  orange.  It  may  be  found  hiding  in  the  deep  gullies  among  rocks,  sheltering 
in  the  dense  clusters  of  seaweed,  and  feeding  on  crabs  and  shrimps.  It  takes  a  bait  freely. 
and  fishermen  have  remarked  that  at  first  they  catch  few  but  large  fish;  some  days  later'a 
great  number  may  be  caught,  but  all  will  be  of  small  size,  indicating  that  the  larger  fish 
assume  the  dominion  of  a  district  and  keep  the  smaller  at  bay. 

Amongst  the  most  brilliantly  colored  of  the  wrasses  are  the  PARROT-FISH.     Mr.  Saville- 
Kent,  writing  of  the  species  which  inhabit  the  waters  of  the  Great   Harrier   Reef  of  Australia, 
remarks  that  to  stand  up  to  your  knees  or  higher  in    water,  with   such    a   shoal    of  magnificent 
fishes  swimming  round  you,  is  an  experience  well  worth  a  journey  to  the  tropics.     The  coloration 
of  these   fishes,  which    i-=   extremely  transient,   fading   almost  immediately   after  death,   nearly 
defies    description.     One   of 
the  most  beautiful  is  perhaps 
the     GOLD-KINNKD      C'liRAI.- 
EISH,  in  which  the  body  is  of 
an  intense  ultramarine,  whilst 
the    fins   are    bright   golden. 
Others  have  the  most  amaz- 
ing  combinations   of    green, 
vermilion,  blue,    and  yellow, 
in  endless  variety.     It  was  one 
of    the     parrot-fishes    which 
found  such    favour  with   the 
ancients.     "  In  the   time   of 

Pliny,"    writes   Dr.   Giinthcr,          '*""  IM,:I.,J.<*.^ 

-  it  was  considered   to  be  the  SAMN    ''  X  K  K  "  ''    ™» 

-     ,  **e    ratrct-Jltxtt,  or    rtirrct-^i-raatt^  are  >,f  pfftStr  tt'Uiturt  of  tkt 

nrstotnsncs  .  .   .  and  the  ex-  Mtk  in  tkefwt ,/  mtotifirm  *  *A*rp*JgtJ k*t 


THE    WRASSE-LIKE    FISHES 


237 


i  bj  W.  Savilli-Kinl,  F.Z.S.] 

BLACK-SPOTTED    PARROT-FISH 

The  flesh  of  some  of  the  Parrot-wrasses  is  of  great  delicacy 


pense  incurred  by  Elipentius 

was  justified,  in  the  opinion 

of  the  Roman  gourmands,  by 

the  extreme  delicacy   of  the 

flesh.     It  was  a  fish,  said  the 

poet,  whose  very  excrement 

the    gods    themselves    were 

unwilling  to  reject.     Its  flesh 

was  tender,  agreeable,  sweet, 

easy  of  digestion,  and  quickly 

assimilated  ;  yet,  if  it  happened 

to  have  eaten  an   aplysia,  it 

produced  violent    diarrhoea." 

To  this  day  the  Greeks  hold 

it  in  high  regard,  and  eat  it 

with  sauce  made   of  its  liver 

and  intestines.     It  feeds  on   seaweed,  and   from   its    habit  of  thoroughly  chewing  its  food,  and 

moving  it  backwards   and    forwards   in  the   mouth,   it  was   at  one  time  believed  that  this  fish 

chewed  the  cud  after  the  fashion  of  the  ruminating  mammals  ! 

One    of  the   most  interesting   of  all   the    wrasses   is  a   small   species  from    King  George's 

Sound,  which,  while  retaining  the  principal   characters  common   to  the   group,   has   assumed 

the  general  shape  and  proportions  of  the  pipe-fish. 

The  third  family  of  the  wrasses   are  remarkable   chiefly  on    account   of  the  fact  that  they 

produce  their  young  alive.    These  fishes  are  confined  to  the  temperate  regions  of  the  North  Pacific. 
The  CHROMIDS  constitute  the  last  family  of  the  wrasse-like  group.     Numerous   in  species, 

they  are  all  dwellers  in  fresh-water.     One   species  occurs  in   amazing   numbers  in  the  Lake  of 

Galilee,  shoals  over  an   acre   in  extent,  and  so  closely  packed  that  movement  seemed  almost 

impossible,  having  been  recorded.     They  are  taken  in  such  enormous  numbers  that  the  nets 

in  which  they  are  caught  often  break.     Occasionally  shoals  are  carried  down  the  Jordan  into 

the   Dead   Sea  ;   but  the  fish  never   get    farther  than  a  few  yards,  becoming  stupefied  almost 

at    once,  and,  turning    over    on    their    backs,  fall    an    easy    prey   to   flocks  of  cormorants  and 

kingfishers.     Heaps  of  putrefying  carcases  are  washed  ashore,  poisoning  the  atmosphere,  in  spite 

of  the  presence  of  flocks  of  ravens  and  vultures  which  have  gathered  to  the  feast. 

Another  species  is  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  method  of  protecting  the  eggs  and  young. 

The  female   deposits  the  eggs,  over  200  in   number,  in   a   small   hole  worked  out  among  the 

roots    of  reeds    and    rushes.      There    they    are    taken    into    the    mouth    of  the    male   one   by 

one,  and  retained  till  hatched 
a  few  days  later.  The  young 
fry  remain  in  this  nursery 
for  some  considerable  time, 
increasing  rapidly  in  size,  so 
that  the  father-nurse  is  unable 
to  close  his  mouth.  Some  of 
the  young  develop  among 
the  gills  ;  others  lie,  closely 
packed,  with  their  heads 
turned  towards  the  mouth  of 
the  parent,  remaining  in  this 
position  till  nearly  4  inches 
long,  when  they  are  ejected 
or  wriggle  out  to  forage  for 

themselves. 


AWRASSE 

The  majority  of  the  Wrasses  are  brilliantly  coloured 


l6 


CHAPTER    VII 


PIPE- FISHES,    SEA-HORSES,    GLOBE-FISHES,    SUN-FISHES,   AND    THEIR    ALLIES 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,    F.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 

THE  fishes  described  in  the  present  chapter  form  two  well-marked  groups,  known  as 
the  Ti  KT-<;ILLED  and  the  COMB-GILLED  FISHES,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  gills,  or  breathing-organs;  they  are  also  remarkable  for  their  peculiar 
shapes.     The  breast-fins   are   present   in    all;  but   in   three   of  the   families   the   second    pair 
of  fins,  corresponding  to  the  hind  limbs  of  the  higher  animals,  are  wanting. 

TheTl'FT-GILLEiil  I-HI  s 
are  represented  by  two  families 
—  theMAii.Kh  TUSK-MI  n  i  us 
and  the  I'lrK-i-ismx  and  SKA- 
HOK-KS,  all  of  which  have 
undergone  very  considerable 
modification  of  form,  thebo.iy 
being  encased  in  mail-like 
armour,  whilst  the  jaws  are 
toothless  and  produced  into 
a  long  tube. 

The  first  family  is  com- 
posed of  a  few  small  fishes 
from  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Grotesque  in  appearance,  they 
are  remarkable  also  for  the 
fact  that  the  female  takes 
sole  charge  not  only  of  the 
eggs,  which  are  exceedingly 
minute,  but  the  young  fry 
also.  Only  one  other  fish  is 

known  in  which  the  care  of  the  eggs  and  young  is  undertaken  by  the  female:  this  is  one 
of  the  Cat-fishes,  described  in  a  later  chapter.  The  eggs  in  the  Tuu:-M<  UTIIS  are  carried 
in  a  pouch  formed  by  the  union  of  the  inner  borders  of  the  ventral  tins,  which  are  long  and 
broad.  For  the  retention  of  the  eggs  within  the  pouch  its  wall  develops  long  filaments,  which 
serve  the  purpose  of  slender  finger*. 

The  second  of  these  families  contains  the  Pil-K-i  i-!ll>  and  SKA-HOKSKS.  They  are  -mall 
marine  fishes,  inhabiting  the  seas  of  tropical  and  temperate  regions  wherever  there  i-  Miiticient 
vegetation  to  offer  shelter,  for  they  are  peculiarly  defence!*  •<.-  creatures.  They  possess  Imt 
feeble  powers  of  swimming,  and  consequently  are  not  seldom  borne  away  by  strong  currents 
far  out  to  sea  or  on  to  distant  shores.  Their  method  of  locomotion  is,  indeed,  quite  different 
from  that  of  other  fishes,  as  they  progress  neither  by  undulatory  motions  of  the  body  nor  by 
powerful  strokes  of  the  tail,  but  by  wriggling  in  the  case  of  the  pipe-fishes,  or  vibrating  motions 
of  the  back-fin  in  the  sea-hor- 

The  long,  semi-cylindrical  Fill  -i  i-m>,  partly  on  account  of  their  peculiar  form  and  colour, 
and  partly  on  account  of  their  swaying  motions,  so  closely  resemble  the  fronds  of  seaweed 

238 


fiui,  ».  A.  $.  RudUnJ  V  Stnl 

GLOBE-FISH 

>  tke  formidable  armature  o/ifinei,  km-uin  alu  at  the  Sea-hedgclug 


Fr,, 


PIPE-FISHES 


239 


amongst  which  they  dwell  as  to  pass  un- 
noticed by  their  enemies.  Unlike  the  Tube- 
mouths,  just  described,  the  care  of  the  eggs 
and  young  devolves  upon  the  males.  The 
young  are  borne  in  a  pouch,  but,  ventral 
fins  being  wanting,  this  is  formed  by  a  fold 
of  skin  developed  from  each  side  of  the 
trunk  and  tail,  the  free  margins  being 
united  in  the  middle  line.  Here  the  eggs 
remain  till  they  are  hatched.  But  the 
pouch  is  by  no  means  done  with  after  this 
event,  for  the  young  continue  to  occupy 
it  for  some  time,  returning  when  danger 
threatens  —  a  habit  which  recalls  the  custom 
of  the  young  of  the  kangaroo.  Mr.  Yarrell 
relates  a  curious  fact  which  he  gleaned  from 
some  fishermen  —  to  wit,  that  if  they  take  a 
pipe-fish,  open  the  pouch,  and  drop  the  young  into  the  sea,  they  will  not  disperse,  but  hover 
around  the  spot,  as  if  waiting  for  their  parent.  Then,  if  the  newly  opened  fish  be  held  in  the 
water,  the  young  immediately  return  and  enter  the  pouch.  In  another  species  of  pipe-fish 
the  eggs,  instead  of  being  carried  in  a  pouch,  are  held  by  a  sticky  secretion  to  a  groove 
in  the  under  surface  of  the  parent.  This  groove  would  seem  to  indicate  the  beginning 
from  which  the  complete  pouch  has  been  developed.  The  pipe-fishes  swim  in  a  very 
peculiar  manner,  holding  the  body  now  in  a  vertical,  and  now  in  a  horizontal  position, 
accompanied  by  contortions  of  every  conceivable  kind,  poking  their  long  snouts  into  bunches 
of  seaweed  in  search  of  food  as  they  go. 


Ptiits  ky  A.  S.  Rudland  &>  Sent 

BLACK-SPOTTED    GLOBE-FISH 

Globe-fishes  possess  the  potvcr  of  Inflating  the   body  iv'tth  air,  'when 
they  float  at  the  surface,  and  thus  escape  enemies 


Phtte  by  N. 


TRIGGER-FISH 

A  ivell-knoivn  member  of  the  File-fishes 


240     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  SEA-HORSES  have  a  still  more  eccentrically  modified  form,  inasmuch  as  the  body  N 
thrown  into  a  scries  of  curves,  the  head  being  bent  upon  the  trunk  in  a  manner  suggestive 
of  the  head  and  neck  of  the  horse ;  hence  the  name  of  the  group.  The  tail,  which  lacks  the 
membranous  portion,  or  fin,  can  be  spirally  coiled,  and  is  used  as  an  organ  of  prehension, 
and  on  this  account  is  unique  amongst  fishes.  Gripping  the  stems  of  seaweeds  with  this  tail. 
and  swaying  the  body  to  and  fro  among  the  vegetation,  the  fish  is  rendered  comparatively  incon- 
spicuous, the  lines  of  the  body  being  broken  up  by  numerous  more  or  less  filamentous  pro- 
cesses, which  in  one  species,  the  Fucus-UKE  SEA-HORSE,  become  excessively  developed,  forming 
long,  frond-like  blades.  These,  streaming  in  the  water,  both  by  their  shape  and  coloration 
render  the  resemblance  to  the  vegetable  growths  in  which  the  animal  hides  so  perfect  that 
detection  is  almost  impossible.  Thus  they  furnish  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of 
adaptation  to  the  environment  amongst  living  animals.  The  males  of  most  sea-horses,  like  the 
pipe-fishes,  carry  the  eggs  and  young  in  a  pouch  on  the  abdomen,  but  in  the  species  just 
mentioned  the  eggs  are  embedded  in  the  soft  skin  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail. 

Sea-horses  swim  with  the  body  more  or  less  vertical,  the  motive  power  being  supplied 
by  rapid  vibration  of  the  back-fin.  Both  pipe-fishes  and  sea-horses  occur  in  British  seas,  the 
first  being  the  more  common. 


fluti  h  H    V.  r.*ttmam]  '  ,      r*rl 

COFFER-FISHES 

Coffer-fitkn  kove  the  body  enrated  in  a  hard  ihell  of  ctotelv  fitting  ptarei,  leaving  only  the  tail  and  fim  free  to  movi 

The  COMB-GILLEO  FISHES,  to  which  we  come  next,  are  divideJ  into  two  families,  whose 
members  are  as  remarkable  for  their  extraordinary  shape  as  are  the  tuft-gillcd  forms  just 
discussed.  The  abnormal  shapes  which  mark  out  certain  fishes  so  conspicuously  from  the  more 
normal  and  typical  forms  are  generally  regarded  as  adaptations,  serving  to  ensure  concealment, 
to  ward  off  attack,  or  to  effect  the  capture  of  prey  otherwise  unattainable.  Instances  illustrating 
all  three  of  these  ends  arc  furnished  by  these  two  groups  of  the  tuft- and  comh-gilled  fishes. 

The  FlLE-FlHli:s  and  G  U  I-'I:K-KISIH:S,  which  form  the  first  of  the  two  families,  present 
considerable  variation  in  shape  as  well  as  in  the  covering  of  the  body,  which  m.iv  he  naked, 
covered  with  rough  scales  or  bony  spines,  or  invested  in  a  complete  bony  cuirass. 

The  file-fishes  are  represented  by  numerous  species,  the  typical  one  being  known  also  as 
the  TRK.I  .r.u-i  isil,  on  account  of  an  armature  of  spines  on  the  top  of  the  bad..  These  spines 
are  three  in  number;  the  first  is  very  strong,  roughe.ied  like  a  file  hence  the  name  l-'ilc- 
fish  —  and  hollowed  out  behind  to  receive  the  second  much  smaller  spine,  which  has  a 
projection  in  front  at  its  base,  fitting  into  a  notch  in  the  tirst.  Thus  these  two  spines  c.m 
only  be  raised  or  depressed  simultaneously,  and  the  first  cannot  be  forced  down  unless  tin- 
second  has  been  previously  depressed.  These  fishes  have  very  powerful  teeth,  to  break  off 
pieces  of  coral,  which  form  a  large  part  of  their  diet.  They  also  destroy  a  large  number  of 
shell-fish,  and  work  great  destruction  amongst  pearl-oysters.  Frequently  these  fishes,  when 
eaten,  prove  highly  poisonous,  from  having  fed  on  poisonous  corals,  jelly-fish,  or  decomposing 
substances. 


M.I.  by  W.  Savilh-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.] 


LACE-FINNED    LEATHER-JACKET 

Another  species  of  File-fish 


*  * 


t. 


I 


[Milf»rd-6n-Sta 


L 


.  Savilli-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.] 


SPOTTED    BOX-   OR    TRUNK-FISH 

Mrj  ifecies  of  Coffer-fish  the  arrangement  of  the  plates  forming  the  hard  cuirass  can  be  plainly  seer 

241 


242       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Pnatt,  1C.  Sfvillt-Kfiit,  F.Z.S.] 

SEA-HORSES 

The  species  on  the  right  is  remarkable  for  the  development  of  long 
leaf'Iike  processes  all  over  the  tody,  causing  the  Jish  to  bear  a  very  close 
resemblance  to  the  seaweed  amongst  which  it  thoellt 


As  a  rule  file-fishes  are  of  small  size,  but 
some  attain  a  length  of  2  feet,  and  many  are 
beautifully  and  symmetrically  marked. 

The  COFFER-FISHES  derive  their  name 
from  the  box-like  cuirass  in  which  they  are  in- 
vested. This  is  formed  by  numerous  closely  fit- 
ting, hexagonal  bony  plates,  forming  a  mosaic, 
and  leaving  only  the  fins  and  hind  part  of  the 
tail  free.  This  bony  case  varies  greatly  in 
form,  in  some  species  being  three-ridged,  in 
others  four-  or  even  five-ridged  ;  while  in  some 
long  horns  are  developed,  makingthc  defensive 
armature  still  more  complex.  More  than 
twenty  species  are  known,  all  confined  to 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  seas. 

ThcGi.oHK-FlSHES  and  Srx-i -IMII>  con- 
stitute the  last  family  of  this  really  extra- 
ordinary assemblage.  The  covering  of  the 
body  consists  either  of  minute  scales  or  lar^e 

spines,  which  can  frequently  be  raised  or  depressed  at  will.     All  the  members  inhabit  tropical 
or  sub-tropical  seas,  and  a  few  occur  in  the  fresh-waters  of  the  same  regions. 

The  GLOBE-FISHES  have  short,  thick  bodies,  covered  either  with  small  spines,  as  in  the 
TOAD-FISH,  or  very  large  ones,  as  in  the  PORCUPINE-FISH,  or  SEA-HEIH;EHOI;.  They  arc  remark- 
able for  their  habit  of  filling  the  gullet  with  air,  and  then  distending  the  body  to  an  enormous 
size.  This  device  enables  the  fish  to  escape  its  enemies;  for  when  so  inflated  it  rises  to  the 
surface  and  floats  belly-upwards,  and,  the  inflated  portion  projecting  above  the  water,  the  fish 
is  blown  along  by  the  wind  to  more  secure  regions.  The  more  heavily  armed  species 
become  still  more  formidable  when  inflated,  as  the  spines  are  then  fully  erected.  Hscaping 
from  enemies  below  by  flight,  they  are  thus  secure  from  enemies  above  by  reason  of  their 
armature.  Globe-fishes  have  been  found  floating  alive  and  unhurt  within  the  stomachs  of 
sharks  which  had  swallowed  them,  and  one  has  even  been  known  to  eat  its  way  out  through 
its  captor's  side,  and  so  killing  its  would-be  devourer !  When  a  globe-fish  desires  to  return 
to  its  normal  elongated  shape,  it  expels  the  air  from  the  gullet  through  the  mouth  and 
gills,  the  expulsion  causing  a  curious  hissing 
sound. 

Extremely  unlike  the  foregoing  members  | 
of  the  group  of  comb-gilled  fishes,  the  Si'N- 
FISH  is  nevertheless  quite  as  remarkable  in 
form,  looking  as  if  it  had  undergone  the  am- 
putation of  its  hind  parts.  The  singular  shape 
of  the  other  members  of  the  comb-  and  tuft- 
gilled  fishes  are  undoubtedly  adaptations  to 
avoid  enemies,  either  by  rendering  the  animal 
inconspicuous,  or  hurtful  by  reason  of  its 
powerful  armature.  The  form  of  the  sun- 
fish  appears  to  be  an  adaptation  for  the 
capture  of  food,  as  this  fish  preys  largely 
upon  the  fry  of  other  fishes  which  inhabit 
enormous  depths,  and  consequently  can  only 
be  obtained  by  diving.  Sun-fishes  inhabit 
the  surface-waters,  but  as  divers  have  fen 
equals- 


F.Z.S.] 

SEA-HOKslS 


[Milf.rd., 


Attaching  themselves  to 


marine  plants  by  nvtsting  their  tails  arouna 
them 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE    COD   FAMILY 

BY    JOHN    BICKERDYKE,  M.A. 

THE   large  and  important  Cod  Family  belongs  to  the  order  of  Spineless  Fishes  and  the 
group  in  which  both  sides  of  the  head  are  symmetrical.     The  Common  Cod,  the  Whit- 
ing, the  Haddock,  the  Pollack,  the  Coal-fish,  the  Hake,  the  Ling,  and  the  little  Rocklings, 
all  belong  to  this  important  family,  which  has  one  representative  in  fresh-water,  the  Burbot, 
or  Eel-pout,  found   in  various  rivers  in   Central  and  Northern  Europe  and  North  America.    • 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  member  of  the  Cod  Family  is  the  CHIASMODUS,  which  has 
huge  jaws  lined  with  large  pointed  teeth,  and  a  distensible  stomach  and  abdomen.     During 
the  Challenger  Expedition  a  specimen  was  taken  1,500  fathoms  down  in  the  North  Atlantic. 
It  had  swallowed  another  fish,  a  kind  of  scopelus,  more  than  twice  its  own  size.     The  stomach 
of  the  chiasmodus  had  swelled  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  had  become  so  thin  from  distension 
that  the  fish  inside  could  be  clearly  seen  through  its  walls.     The  scopelus,  it  is  interesting  to 
mention,  is  a  fish  brought  up  sometimes  by  the  dredge  from  2,500  fathoms.     It  occasionally 
comes  to  the  surface  at  night,  and  has  phosphorescent  spots  along  its  sides,  giving  out  a  dim 
light,  which  has  its  uses  in  the  dark  depths  of  the  sea. 

To  come  back  to  the  head  of  the  family,  the  COD  is  a  fairly  plentiful  fish  all  around  the 
British  and  Irish  coasts,  but  appears  to  be  decreasing  in  some  waters  as  time  goes  on,  owing' 
to  the  over-trawling  of  the  North  Sea.  Off  the  coasts  of  Norway,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Lofoden  Islands,  the  cod  are  sometimes  so  thickly  packed  in  shoals  that  as  the  fishermen 


fhiti  k>   A.  S.  Rutland  &•  Stni 


WHITING 

Easily  distinguished  from  the  cod  by  the  absence  of  a  barbel  art  the  Mn 
243 


244       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

lower  their  tackle  they  can  feel  the  leads  hitting  the  backs  of  the  fishes.  Both  there  and  off 
the  Faroe  Islands  and  Iceland  it  is  common  practice  to  fish  with  a  hook  bearing  a  little  piece 
of  polished  lead  on  its  shank,  no  other  bait  being  required,  owing  to  the  cod  being  so  numerous 
that  food  is  scarce. 

About  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  English  began  to  go  to  Iceland 
for  cod,  and  since  the  sixteenth  century  Knglish  cod-fishing  vessels  have  visited  Newfoundland 
and  other  far  northern  waters,  which  produce  fish  superior  to  English  cod.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  Cod  Family  is  not  found  to  any  extent  in  tropical  seas. 

While  the  Hl'RHoT  is  one  of  the  few  species  of  the  group  inhabiting  fresh-water,  and  is 
peculiar  in  living  there  permanently,  there  are  instances  recorded  of  POLLACK  having  ascended 
from  the  salt  water  of  the  Norwegian  fiords  into  fresh-water  lakes,  and  it  is  an  undoubted 
fact  that  many  other  species  of  sea-fish  can  accustom  themselves  to  a  residence  in  fresh-water. 

All  through  the  year  cod  frequent  the  British  coasts;  but  it  is  two  or  three  months  before 

T  ;v^5?3*533S 


. 


Hun  t,  IP.  tmltlt.Knt,  f.Z.J.l 

POLLACK-WHITING 

A  Britiik  representative  of  the  grc.uf>  in  which  the  tower  jaw  is  the  longtr  and  all  the  teeth  tf  the  uffer  jaw  are  of  equal  size 

the  spawning-season,  which  commences  in  January  or  later  according  to  the  locality,  that  they 
gather  in  vast  shoals  and  come  close  inshore.  First  come  the  small  codling  of  a  pound  or 
so,  and  as  the  winter  approaches  the  longshore  fish  arc  found  gradually  to  increase  in  size, 
until  by  Christmas-time  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  on  the  east  coast  of  England  and  Scotland 
for  fish  of  from  10  to  20  Ibs.  to  be  caught  from  the  beach. 

As  a  rule  the  eggs  of  cod  float,  owing  to  a  little  globule  of  oil  which  each  one  contains, 
but  in  water  which  lacks  salinity  they  sink.  The  quantities  of  ei;gs  shed  by  each  fish  arc 
enormous;  nearly  two  millions  were  counted  in  a  cod  of  a  little  under  12  Ibs.  It  is  fairly 
certain,  however,  that  not  more  than  two  or  three,  if  so  many,  mature  fish  are  the  product 
of  the  two  million  eggs;  for  if  each  fish  even  doubled  itself  in  numbers  (if  we  may  use  the 
expression)  every  year,  the  sea  would  soon  contain  more  fish  than  water.  Millions  upon 
millions  of  eggs  are  destroyed  when  there  is  an  on-shore  wind  during  the  spawning-season. 
Sometimes  the  shore  on  which  they  have  been  wafted  has  been  seen  to  glisten  with  them. 

By  the  end  of  summer  such  of  the  young  cod-fish  as  have  escaped  their  many  dangers 
attain  about  I  inch  in  length.  They  are  very  varied  in  colour,  which  depends  on  that  of  the 


THE     COD    FAMILY  245 

seaweed  and  their  other  surroundings.  The  parent  fish,  too,  vary  somewhat  in  appearance, 
those  round  the  English  coast  as  a  rule  having  brown  backs  with  irregular  spotty  markings 
on  the  sides,  while  those  from  more  northern  waters  usually  have  darker  backs  and  are  less 
often  spotted.  Cod  are  most  enormous  feeders,  and  in  consequence  grow  very  rapidly.  At 
the  Southport  Aquarium  codling  of  only  f  Ib.  increased  in  weight  to  6  or  7  Ibs.  in  about 
sixteen  months. 

So  voracious  is  the  cod  that  it  is  very  apt  to  swallow  anything  it  sees  moving,  without 
considering  whether  it  is  wholesome.  In  1879  a  black  guillemot  in  perfect  condition  was 
removed  from  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  fish ;  while  among  other  strange  finds  by  cod- 
fishermen  from  the  same  receptacle  was  a  piece  of  tallow  candle  7  inches  long,  a  hare,  a 
partridge,  a  white  turnip,  and,  going  back  to  the  year  1626,  a  "work  in  three  treatises,"  which 
was  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  fish  captured  in  Lynn  Deeps  on  midsummer  eve,  and  brought  to 
the  Vice-Chancellor  of  Cambridge.  The  usual  food  of  cod  is,  however,  small  fish  of  various  kinds — 
herrings,  pilchards,  sprats,  crabs,  and  sea-worms;  but  the  species  is  not  particular  what  it  seizes 
when  shoaling  before  the  spawning-season  and  food  is  scarce  owing  to  the  number  of  mouths. 


CHAPTER    IX 

CAVE-FISHES,  SAND-EELS  AND    THEIR    ALLIES,  AND    FLAT-FISHES 

BY  W.  P.  PYCRAFT,  A.L.S.,  F.Z.S. 

THE  subterranean   fresh-water  caves  of  Cuba   furnish  the   most   interesting  and   most 
remarkable  members  of  the  family  in  certain   small   fishes   known   as    CAVE-FISHES. 
Living  in  complete  darkness,  the  eyes  have  degenerated  so  as  to  be  no  longer  useful 
as  organs  of  sight;   indeed,  in  many  species  they  are  entirely  wanting.     By  way  of  compensation 
delicate  organs  of  touch  have  been  developed,  taking  the  form,  in  different  species,  of  barbels, 
hair-like  processes,  or  tubercles.     These  blind  fishes  are  closely  allied  to  certain  marine  forms 
found  in  the  tropical  Atlantic  and   Indian  Oceans,  and  it  is  curious  to  note  that  amongst  these 
about  seven  very  rare  species  are  found  at  great  depths  in  the  southern  oceans,  so  great  that 
light  fails  to  reach  them,  and  they  too  are  blind. 

The  SAND-EELS,  or  LAUNCES,  are  extremely  common  on  the  sandy  shores  of  Europe  and 
North  America,  living  in  vast  shoals,  and  displaying  a  wonderful  unison  in  their  movements, 
rising  and  falling  as  with  one  accord.  They  burrow_in  the  sand  with  amazing  rapidity,  forcing 


ftMi  *»  W.  Savill,-K<nt,  F.Z.S.']  [Miif,rd-tn-!><i 

SPOTTED  SOLE 

A  larger  and  coarser  fsh  than  the  common  ale 


246       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

their  way  by  means  of  a  horny  projection  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  remaining  buried  at  ebb-tide 
some  5  or  6  inches  under  the  sand,  when  they  are  captured  by  fishermen,  armed  with  rakes,  for 
bait.  When  swimming  in  shoals,  their  presence  is  often  betrayed  by  schools  of  porpoises,  which 
feed  greedily  upon  them,  preventing  their  return  to  the  bottom  by  getting  under  the  shoal, 
whilst  others  swim  round  it  Mackerel  also  make  large  raids  upon  the  ranks  of  such  shoals. 

FLAT-HSIH:S  may  be  reckoned  among  the  most  important  of  food-fishes,  and  beside-  are 
of  quite  peculiar  interest,  on  account  of  the  remarkable  modifications  of  structure  which  they 
have  undergone.  They  differ  from  all  other  vertibrates  in  that,  save  for  the  first  feu  weeks 
of  existence,  they  spend  the  whole  of  their  lives  with  one  side  of  the  body  uppermost  —  the 
right  or  left,  according  to  the  species.  Whether  resting  or  swimming,  this  position  holds 
good.  The  newly  hatched  fish,  however,  maintains  the  normal  poise  of  the  body,  the  bark 
being  uppermost.  Of  the  many  changes  which  the  organs  of  the  body  undergo  during  this 
strange  transformation  from  a  "round"  to  a  "flat"  fish,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  that 
which  concerns  the  eyes.  These,  in  the  very  young  fish,  lie  one  on  either  side  of  the  head ; 
but  as  the  fish  grows  older  it  begins  to  lie  on  its  side  on  the  ground,  and  ultimately,  when 
it  is  two  or  three  months  old,  loses  the  power  of  sustaining  itself  in  an  upright  position 
altogether.  The  most  remarkable  feature  in  this  very  strange  mode  of  development 
that  as  the  fish  conies  to  lie  more  and  more  on  its  side,  so  the  eye  which  is  undermost 
begins  to  move  round  to  the  other  side,  till  eventually  the  two  eyes  lie  side  by  side  on  the 
upper-surface.  Strangely  enough,  in  some  species  the  eye  moves  round  the  head,  passing 
over  its  edge,  and  so  to  its  place  beside  the  stationary  eye,  whilst  in  others  it  acquires  it, 
ultimate  position  by  moving  through  the  head,  sinking  in  on  one  side  and  appearing  again  on 
the  other.  The  coloration  of  these  fishes  is  also  peculiar,  in  that  the  two  sides  are  quite 
differently  coloured,  the  upper  side  resembling  in  tone  that  of  the  sea-bottom,  whilst  the  under 
side  is  pure  white.  In  the  young  fish,  before  the  habit  of  lying  on  one  side  ha-  been 
acquired,  both  sides  are  coloured  alike.  The  difference  in  coloration  between  the  two  sides  of 
the.  adult  fish  appears  to  be  due  to  the  effect  of  light,  since  in  flat-fishes  kept  in  a  tank  with 


flul.  »,  If.  tivtH*  *«•»,  F.Z.I] 

H  AI.IBUT 

Tki  larftu  mtmhtr  tf  ikl  Flat-flk  Family.      Tki  kaik-fi*  uiuttlly  lommeacei  muck  ftrtktr  ferviard 


[  v<; 


FLAT-FISHES 


247 


a  mirror  at  the  bottom  the 
under-surface  was  found  in 
many  cases  to  be  very  largely 
coloured.  But  the  colour  of 
the  upper  surface  is  by  no 
means  constant.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  flat-fish  appears  to 
possess  the  power,  in  common 
with  all  other  fishes,  of  chang- 
ing its  colour  so  as  to  harmon- 
ise with  the  tone  of  its  sur- 
roundings. Thus  on  a  light 
sandy  ground  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  body  becomes 
pale,  while  on  a  dark  muddy 
bottom  it  is  almost  black. 
By  this  power  of  changing 
the  colour  of  the  exposed 
portion  of  the  body  so  as  to 
harmonise  with  the  surround- 
ings, the  fish  is  enabled  to 
become  in  a  large  measure 


Phata  kj  If.  Savillt-Ktnl,  F.Z.S.] 


[Milfard-an-Siit 


BRILL 


in  the  turbot,  the  eyes  are  on  the  left  side  of  the  head,  instead  of  on  the  right  side,  as  in  the 

halibut 


invisible,   and    in    proportion 

to   the   effectiveness   of  the   change   to  escape   its  enemies.     Some    soles   are   quite    invisible. 

The  most  important  of  the  flat-fishes  are  the  PLAICE,  FLOUNDER,  DAB,  HALIBUT,  SOLE, 
TURBOT,  and  BRILL. 

The  PLAICE  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  British  flat-fishes,  and  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  numerous  orange  or  red  spots  which  are  scattered  over  the  upper  surface  of  the  body. 
From  15  to  18  inches  in  length,  specimens  are  occasionally  captured  which  have  attained  a 
length  of  28  inches.  Plaice  feed  on  shell-fish,  such  as  mussels  or  scallops,  which  they  crush 
by  means  of  strong,  blunt  teeth  in  the  throat ;  but  worms  are  also  eaten. 

The  eggs  of  the  plaice  are  amongst  the  largest  fish-eggs  known. 

The  FLOUNDER  is  a  smaller  fish  than  the  plaice,  and  lacks  the  red  spots.  It  differs  from 
the  other  flat-fishes  in  the  preference  it  shows  for  the  mouths  of  rivers,  ascending  these, 
indeed,  so  far  as  to  enter  fresh-water. 

The  HALIBUT  is  the  largest  of  the  flat-fishes,  specimens  of  as  much  as  20  feet  in  length  being 
on  record,  while  examples  of  from  6  to  7  feet  long  are  not  uncommon  in  Grimsby  market. 
This  fish  has  a  wide  distribution,  occurring  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North 
Pacific,  being  most  abundant  in  deep  water.  The  halibut  which  are  brought  into  the  markets 
of  Grimsby  and  Hull  are  chiefly  caught  off  the  coasts  of  Iceland  and  the  Faroes  with 
long  lines. 

The  SOLE  is  a  shallow-water  fish,  feeding  chiefly  upon  v/orms,  crabs,  and  shrimps.  These 
it  apparently  hunts  by  smell,  gliding  over  the  sea-bottom,  and  tapping  with  the  lower  side 
of  its  head,  which  is  provided  with  sensitive  organs  of  touch  in  the  shape  of  filaments.  By  day 
it  conceals  itself  by  burrowing  in  the  sand,  coming  out  after  dark  to  feed. 

The  TURBOT  resembles  the  brill,  from  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  greater  breadth 
of  the  body  in  proportion  to  the  length,  the  absence  of  scales,  and  the  presence  of  large  bony 
tubercles  scattered  over  the  surface.  In  Great  Britain  the  turbot  is  most  abundant  in  the 
English  Channel. 

The  BRILL  closely  resembles  the  turbot  not  only  in  general  form,  but  in  the  numerical 
superiority  of  the  females,  and  in  the  habits  of  the  young,  which,  like  the  turbot,  are  surface- 
feeders  and  possess  an  air-bladder. 


CHAPTER    X 
EELS  AND    CAT-FISHES 

BY  W.  P.   PYCRAPT,  A.I..S.,  P.Z.S. 

EELS,  like  flat-fishes,  show  plainly,  in  the  shape  of  their  bodies,  a  remarkably  perfect 
adaptation  to  their  environment.     They  are  burrowing  fishes,  passing  much  of  tlu-ir  time 
buried  in  the  mud,  and  leaving  little  more  than  the  head  exposed.     In  accordance  with 
this  habit,  the  body  is  very  long  and  round,  and  lacks  both  the  hinder  paired  fins,  and  scaK--;. 
When  swimming,  the  body  is  propelled  by  rapid  undulations,  the  movement  being  from  side  tx> 
side,  it  may  be  remarked,  instead  of  up  and  down,  as  in  the  "serpentine"  movements  of  sna! 

Whether  all  the  fishes  commonly  regarded  as  eels  really  belong  to  this  family  or  not  is 
a  moot-point.  It  is  possible  that  the  eel  shape  has  been  independently  acquired  by  unrelated 
forms  as  a  result  of  adaptation  to  a  similar  mode  of  life.  But  as  the  group  now  stands  it 
embraces  several  distinct  types, — the  COMMON  FRESH-WATKR  EEI.S  ;  numerous  marine  >]>< -i -irs, 
such  as  CONGERS,  SERPENT-EELS,  DEEP-SEA  EELS,  and  PAINTED  KI.I.S;  and  the  fresh-water 
ELECTRIC  EELS. 

The  RlVER-EELS  and  CONGERS  are  perhaps  the  best  known,  and  are  also  highly  important 
food-fishes.  That  they  are  fishes  of  comparatively  slow  growth  seems  to  be  shown  by  the 


ftllli  If  ]T.  LfiU'llItt] 


EELS 

Two  iftciet  an  thi.ii.-n  in  ikit  ftcngraft 


EELS    AND     CAT-FISHES 


249 


Phtlo  k;   U'. 


,  t.Z.S.] 


CONGER-EEL 

The  females  of  this  species  often  sivalloiv  the  males 


fact  that  the  common  eel  takes  about  four  or  five  years  to  attain  a  weight -of  between  5  and 
6  Ibs.  The  males  are  smaller  than  the  females,  the  greatest  length  attained  by  the  former 
being  a  little  over  I  foot  7  inches,  whilst  the  latter  may  attain  a  length  of  nearly  4  feet. 
For  a  long  while  what  is  now  known  to  be  the  female  river-eel  was  regarded  as  a  distinct 
species  —  the  SHARP-NOSED  EEL.  The  two  sexes  have  quite  different  habits,  the  smaller  males 
being  found  mostly  in  the  brackish  water  of  river-mouths,  and  rarely  above  the  reach  of  the 
tides,  whilst  the  females  ascend  the  rivers  for  great  distances,  thousands  finding  their  way 
into  isolated  ponds,  which  they  reach  by  traveling  overland.  Here  they  appear  to  remain 
till  they  have  reached  maturity,  when  they  migrate  with  one  accord  to  the  sea.  Coming  down 
the  rivers  during  the  months  of  October  and  November,  hundreds  are  taken  in  large  niches 
with  traps,  the  mouths  of  which  are  directed  up-stream. 

The  migration  of  eels  to  the  sea  is  for  the  sole  purpose  of  spawning  and  fertilising  the 
eggs,  which  done,  they  die.  The  spawning  appears  to  take  place  in  extremely  deep  water, 
where  the  young  eels  pass  the  earlier  stages  of  their  development.  Like  the  majority  of 
young  fishes,  the  fry  are  at  first  very  different  in  form  from  the  adults,  and  many  have 
from  time  to  time  been  described  as  distinct  species,  no  suspicion  of  their  true  nature 
having  been  aroused.  And  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  for  at  this  stage  they  are  perfectly 
transparent  and  compressed  from  side  to  side,  so  as  to  be  but  little  thicker  than  a  sheet  of 
stout  paper;  the  head  is  ridiculously  small,  and  only  median  fins. are  present.  As  develop- 
ment proceeds,  having  reached  a  certain  maximum  size,  the}-,  strangely  enough,  begin  to 
slowly  diminish,  growing  shorter  and  at  the  same  time  rounder,  so  that  eventually,  by  the 
time  the  characteristic  eel  form  is  attained,  they  are  considerably  shorter  than  they  were  at 
the  maximum  period  of  larval  life. 

By  the  time  the  adult  eel  form  has  been  attained,  the  larvae  have  made  their  way  to 
the  mouths  of  various  rivers,  preparatory  to  making  their  ascent,  which  takes  place  between 


250      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

February  and  May.     They  arc  then  from  2  to  5  inches  long,  and  perfectly  transparent  save  f..r 
a  black  line  inside  the  body,  running  along  the  spinal  cord.     The  numbers  passing  up  a  single 
river  during  this  ascent  are  almost  beyond  belief.     In  one  of  these  migrations,  or  "  eel-far. 
upwards  of  three  tons  were  captured  in  a  single  day  in  the  Gloucester  district  in   1886,  and 
it  has  been  calculated  that  more  than   14,000  go   to  make  a  pound  weight.     In  the  previous 
year  the  annual  consumption  of  eels  was   estimated    at  a  minimum    of  1,650   tons,   with  a 
total  value  of  .£130,000.     Few  obstacles  seem  too  great  to  be  overcome  in  their  ascent,  for 
they  will  ascend  the  flood-gates  of  locks,  or  even  travel  overland  if  the  ground  be  wet,  till  a 
desirable  resting-place  is  found.     In  some  parts  of  England  these  young  eels,  or  "  elvi  is, 
they  are  called,  are  salted  and  made  into  cakes. 

The  CoNGER-EEL  is  a  marine  species,  differing  from  the  river-eel,  amongst  other  things 
in  its  larger  head  and  eyes,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  its  teeth  and  the  large  size  of  the 
gill-openings.  The  conger  is  also  greatly  superior  in  size,  examples  of  between  6  and  7  feet 


CAT-FISH 


Note  tht  prtunct  of  barbtli,  or  **y"«Arj,"  rcurj  the  rr.tuih 


in  length  and  60  Ibs.  in  weight  being  common.  The  females  are  larger  than  the  males,  and 
an  instance  is  on  record  of  a  female  which  was  over  8  feet  in  length  and  weighed  uS  Hi*. 
Congers  feed  on  other  fishes,  cuttle-fishes,  and  lobsters,  as  well  as  upon  one  another,  the  larger 
females  eating  the  smaller  males. 

SERl'EM-i  II  -  are  confined  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  sea-;,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
extreme  voracity.  More  than  eighty  species  arc  known,  some  of  which  are  brilliantly  coloured. 

The  DEEr-si-:.\  l-'.l.l  »  are  represented  by  numerous  speeies.  and  dwell  at  depths  van  ing 
from  340  to  2.OOO  fathoms."  In  some  species  the  body  is  remarkably  modified,  the  mouth  being 
of  enormous  size,  and  the  stomach  capable  of  marvellous  di-ten-ion,  so  much  so  that  eels  of 
this  family  have  been  captured  which  had  swallowed  fishes  several  times  their  own  weight.  The 
tail  in  many  of  the  deep-sea  eels  tapers  to  a  fine  hair-like  point. 

The  PAIMI  !•   I.I  I  s  are  remarkable  for  their  bright  spotted  or  mottled  coloration,  and 
of  large  size,  ranging  from  6  to  8  feet  in   length.     Armed   with   formidable   teeth,  the  larger 


Phfte  kj  N. 


P'nitt  ty  AT.   I.axarnili] 


PAINTED    EELS    FROM    BERMUDA 

AUrc  than  eighty  sfecies  of  these  ft/its  are  kna-wn 


CAT-FISHES 

belong  to  the  unarmoured  group 

251 


[NfW  Tart 


[NfW 


252      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


species  are  held  in  no  little  fear  by  fishermen  and  bathers,  attacks  from  these  fishes  being  by 
no  means  rare.     Their  distribution  is  closely  similar  to  that  of  the  Serpent-eels. 

The  ELECTRIC  EEL  is  an  extremely  abundant  fish  in  the  rivers  and  lagoons  of  Brazil  and 
the  Guianas.  It  is  the  most  powerful  of  the  electric  fishes,  and  attains  a  length  of  6  feet 
The  electric  organs  of  this  fish  are  sufficiently  strong  to  kill  by  their  shock  other  fishes  and 
even  mammals.  The  traveler  Humboldt  is  responsible  for  the  statement,  now  generally  dis- 
credited, that  the  Indians  procured  this  fish  by  driving  horses  into  the  water,  and  so  provoking 
such  violent  discharges  from  the  fish  that  they  became  exhausted  and  fell  an  easy  prey. 

The  CAT-FISHES,  or  SHEATH-FISHES,  are  an  extremely  interesting  group,  one  of  the  principal 
characteristics  of  which  is  the  total  absence  of  scales,  the  body  being  either  entirely  naked 
or  armed  with  bony  tubercles  or  overlapping  plates.  Another  peculiarity  of  these  fishes  i-, 
the  presence  of  feelers  round  the  mouth;  these,  by  their  delicate  sense  of  touch,  enable  the 
fish  to  procure  its  food  in  extremely  muddy  water,  when  the  eyes  would  be  useless.  The 
latter,  indeed,  in  many  species  are  extremely  reduced  in  size.  Many  cat-fishes  are  armed 
with  powerful  spines,  attached  to  the  body  by  a  very  complicated  mechanism.  Such  spine- 
are  capable  of  inflicting  dangerous  wounds,  either  by  the  introduction  of  poison  or  the 
violent  inflammation  following  on  the  laceration  of  the  wounded  part.  Some  species  have 
elaborate  accessory  breathing-organs,  enabling  them  to  travel  overland  for  short  di'stan 
from  one  piece  of  water  to  another.  Other  members  of  the  group  possess  electrical  organs  of 
considerable  power;  one  species  inhabiting  the  Nile  attains  a  length  of  4  feet. 

The  nesting-habits  of  the  group  are  exceedingly  interesting,  some  building  nests  in  which 
to  deposit  the  eggs;  others  carry  the  eggs  in  the  mouth  till  they  hatch.  In  one  species  the 
care  of  the  eggs  is  undertaken  by  the  female,  which  carries  them  about  embedded  in  the  skin 
of  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  which  at  this  season  becomes  very  soft  and  spongy.  When 
the  eggs  are  laid,  she  presses  them  into  the  spongy  skin  by  lying  on  them. 

The  cat-fishes  are  of  world-wide  distribution,  but  only  one  species,  the  WEI.S,  occurs  in 
European  waters.  It  commonly  attains  a  length  of  from  6  to  9  feet,  and  occasionally  as 
much  as  13  feet.  The  majority  of  cat-fishes  inhabit  fresh-water,  but  some  are  marine. 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE   CARP  FAMILY 


BY    JOHN    B1CKERDYKE,  M.A. 


CARP 

Tkl   member  i    cf  tkr    Ca'f    Tribe   are   vtflldolc-fttdtri. 

Ike    ijtui 


They  have  teeth  in  the  throat,  but  nont  in 


THE  Carp  Fam- 
ily, like  the 
Perch  group,  is 
one  of  thelargcst  among 
fishes.  It  includes  the 
Kudd,  Roach.  Tetuh, 
Bream,  Minnow,  etc., 
and  is  divided  into  many 
groups,  which  again  in- 
clude numerous  species 
found  chiefly  in  the 
temperate  and  tropical 
parts  of  tlie  world.  In- 
cluded among  tlie.se  are 
the  Barbels,  of  which 
there  aic  about  2OO 
species,  varying  from 
little  fishes  of  2  inches 


THE    CARP    FAMILY 


253 


to  monsters  of  6  feet  or  more  in  length.  Some  of  the  largest  are  found  in  the  Tigris ;  but 
the  Mahseer  of  India  must  be  regarded  as  the  king  of  all  the  species.  In  some  of  the 
rivers  flowing  from  the  Himalaya  Mountains  are  curious  Barbel  which  have  their  vent  and 
anal  fin  in  a  sheath  covered  with  large  scales.  Roach  are  important  members  of  the  Carp 
Family,  and  the  Roach  group  is  a  very  large  one,  including  the  various  fishes  coming  under  the 
term  of  "  white  fish  "  in  Germany.  The  Roach  proper  is  common  all  over  Europe  north  of 
the  Alps.  In  this  group  is  the  Ide  of  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  Europe,  which  when 
domesticated  becomes  golden  in  hue,  and  is  then  called  the  Golden  Orf,  a  pretty  fish  kept  in 
many  English  aquariums.  Rudd  are  found  all  over  Europe  and  Asia  Minor.  Of  Tench, 
only  one  species  is  known,  the  Golden  Tench  being  merely  a  variety  differing  in  the  matter  of 
colour.  The  Bream  group  consists  of  the  Common  Bream,  Bream-flat,  and  the  American  Bream, 
or  Shiner.  Lastly,  we  may  mention  the  Bleak  group,  of  which  there  are  fifteen  known  species 
in  Europe,  East  Africa,  and  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  This  list  by  no  means  exhausts  the 
numerous  members  of  the  Carp  Family. 

The  COMMON  CARP  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  fishes  which  swim.  In  early  times 
in  England  it  was  extensively  cultivated  as 
a  food-fish,  and  in  Germany  at  the  present 
day  is  as  much  domesticated  as  the  sheep, 
pig,  or  ox.  The  fish-culturists  have  indeed 
done  extraordinary  things  with  it,  having,  for 
instance,  produced  a  variety  with  a  single 
row  of  scales  dosvn  each  side  and  sometimes 
on  the  back  only,  called  the  MlRROR-CARP,  or 
KIXOCARP.  There  is  also  the  LEATHER-CARP, 
with  no  scales  at  all,  which  is  much  esteemed 
in  Germany. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  common 
carp  was  originally  a  native  of  the  East,  and 
it  certainly  has  been  domesticated  in  China 
for  many  hundreds  of  years.  Thence  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  imported  to  Germany 
and  Sweden,  reaching  England  some  time  in 
the  early  years  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In 
that  curious  work  the  "  Boke  of  St.  Albans," 
published  in  1496,  it  is  said  that  the  carp  is 
a  "  dayntous  fysshe,  but  there  ben  fewe  in  Englonde,  and  therefore  I  wryte  the  lesse  of  hym." 

China  is  the  home  of  the  GOLD-FISH,  a  pretty  little  carp  common  in  that  country  and 
the  warmer  parts  of  Japan.  The  Chinese  have  distorted  Nature  with  regard  to  this  fish  even 
more  than  the  Germans  "have  the  common  carp.  Their  most  extraordinary  monstrosity  is, 
perhaps,  the  TELESCOPE-FISH,  which  has  a  huge  tail  and  projecting  eyes.  It  is  believed  that 
gold-fish  were  not  known  in  England  before  the  year  1691. 

The  carp  has  many  interesting  peculiarities.  It  is  an  extraordinarily  fertile  fish,  and 
one  of  the  most  rapid  growers  in  fresh-water.  Under  the  most  favourable  conditions  it 
attains  a  weight  of  from  3  to  3|  Ibs.  in  three  years.  In  a  pond  which  is  overstocked,  carp 
hardly  increase  in  weight  at  all;  while, 'on  the  other  hand,  their  growth  in  hot  countries  is 
very  much  greater  than  above  stated.  A  fish  of  from  4  to  5  Ibs.  may  contain,  on  an  average, 
from  400,000  to  500,000  eggs;  these  are  spawned  in  May  or  June,  and  hatched  in  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  days,  according  to  the  temperature. 

The  life  of  this  curious  fish  may  be  one  of  extraordinary  duration,  carp  having  been  known 
to   attain  an   age  of  a  hundred   years  or   more.     When  very  old,  they  are  apt  to  go  blind  and 
develop  white  marks,  due  to  the  growth  of  funguses. 
17 


fhttc 


[Mil/trd-tn-Sti 


inl,  F.Z.S.] 

GOLD-FISH 

A  nat'.ve  of  China  and  the  warmer  farts  of  Japan 


254     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


In  the  winter  carp  either  bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  or  lie  among  the  water-weeds  or 
roots  of  trees  at  the  bottom.  They  are  vegetarians  for  the  most  part,  with  no  teeth  in  their 
mouths,  but  strong,  powerful  grinding-teeth  in  their  throats;  they  are  believed  to  regurgitate 
their  food  and  chew  it,  somewhat  as  a  cow  chews  the  cud. 

With  regard  to  the  weight  which  this  fish  attains,  one  of  19  Ibs.  was  taken  at  Sheffield 
Park  in  1882.  This  was  exceptionally  large;  but  one  still  larger,  weighing  21  Ibs.  10  ozs.,  was 
caught  at  Bayham  Abbey,  near  Lamberhurst,  in  1870;  while  one  of  22  Ibs.  was  exhibited 
many  years  ago  to  the  Zoological  Society.  In  the  German  lakes  those  fish  reach  a  weight 
of  40  Ibs.,  or  even  more. 

Carp  will,  however,  occasionally  eat  small  fish,  and  have  even  been  caught  with  a  salmon-llv. 


CHAPTER    XII 
PIKES,    ARAPA1MAS,   BEAKED   SALMOX,    .-/\D   SCOPE  LIDS 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,   A.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 

THK  FIKKS  are  strictly  fresh-water  fishes,  which  are  extremely  voracious,  and  grow 
to  a  large  size.  They  are  met  with  in  most  of  the  fresh-svaters  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America;  yet  they  must  be  regarded  rather  as  a  Western  than  an  K.istern  type, 
since  all  the  known  species  occur  in  America,  whilst  only  one — the  COMMON  PIKE — is  known 
outside  that  country.  These  fishes  capture  their  prey  by  stealth — practised,  however,  not  so 
much  by  concealment  as  by  lying  suspended  in  the  water,  perfectly  motionless  save  for  the 
movement  of  the  gills,  which  is  barely  perceptible.  When  the  victim  comes  within  reach,  it  is 
seized  by  a  sudden  rush.  The  form  of  the  body  is  admirably  adapted  to  this  manner  of  feeding, 
resembling  rather  a  submerged  log  than  a  fish.  It  is,  furthermore,  on  account  of  this  shape 
that  the  name  Pike  has  been  bestowed,  since  it  recalls  the  "pike"  borne  by  the  soldiers  of 
bygone  days. 

When  on  the  feed,  nothing  comes  amiss  to  pike,  and  the  havoc  they  commit  in 
trout-streams  is  enormous.  Not  only  other  fishes  arc  devoured,  but  both  the  young  and 
adults  of  water-birds  are  frequently  seized,  and  instances  are  on  record  where  boys  have  beeo 
attacked  while  bathing.  The  mouth  of  a  pike  bristles  with  teeth,  even  the  root  being  thickly 
covered.  These  are  all  attached  by  hinges,  moving  readily  backwards  towards  the  throat . 
as  to  assist  the  swallowing  operation,  but  preventing  any  possibility  of  the  victim's  escape. 

In  Great  Hritain  the 
pike  is  held  in  high 
esteem  by  anglers,  though 
as  an  article  of  food  it  does 
not  find  much  favour.  The 
females  are  larger  than 
the  males.  The  largest 
specimens  attain  a  length 
of  about  4  feet,  sometimes 
a  little  more,  and  a  weight 
of  from  36  to  37  Ibs. 
About  MX  sped 
pike  are  known,  five  of 
which  are  confined  to 

American  waters.  i >f  tl> 

the  one  known  as  the 
Mi^KKT-i  i'\<;r.,  or  Mi  s- 
KIN«  >\(.r.,  attains  the  same 
large  size  as  the  common 


Pll. 


Photo  by  AT.  Laxarnitf] 


PICKEREL 

This  ii  an  American  species 


[Ntw   Ttrk 


fh,t,  h  If.  Sa-uilU.Ktnt,  F.Z.S.J 


[Milfard-en-Sta 


"SERGEANT    BAKER" 

n  edible  Australian  representative  of  the  group  ofJisAfs  which,  for  ivant  of  an  English  name,  are  here  called  Scope/ids 

255 


256      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


BEAKED    SALMON 

Kntrwn  in  Nna  Zealand  at  lit  SanJ-te! 

pike ;  the  other  species  are  known  as  PlKEREL.     The  immature  pike  is  commonly  called    a 
JACK. 

The  ARAPAIMAS  are  large  fresh-water  fishes,  confined  to  the  tropics,  their  distribution  being 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  Lung-fishes;  they  are  represented  in  America,  Australi.i. 
and  Africa,  but  one  species  occurs  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  The  largest  species  <  >t' 
all — which  is  also  the  largest  fresh-water  bony  fish  known  —  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Brazil  and 
the  Guianas,  attaining  a  length  of  15  feet  and  a  weight  of  400  Ibs.  It  is  highly  esteemed 
as  an  article  of  food,  being  salted  and  exported  from  the  inland  fisheries  to  the  sea-ports. 
The  natives  take  it  either  with  a  rod  and  line,  or  with  a  bow  and  arrow,  a  line  being  tastem-d 
to  the  arrow,  thus  converting  it  into  a  harpoon. 

Four  species  of  arapaimas  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  "  barbels  "  on  the  chin; 
of  these,  two  are  Australian,  one  American,  and  one  occurs  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  Yrt 
another  species  is  found  in  the  Nile  and  the  rivers  of  West  Africa.  The  Australian  spo 
like  the  large  Brazilian  form,  are  highly  esteemed  as  food;  one  of  these,  known  as  the  D  \\\ '>•  >\ 
RlVER  SALMON,  is  confined  to  the  rivers  of  Queensland,  the  other  to  the  rivers  emptying 
into  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 

The  BEAKED  SALMON  occurs  in  the  open  seas  of  the  Cape,  Japan,  and  Australia:  but  in 
New  Zealand,  where  it  is  known  as  the  SAND-EEL,  it  is  found  in  bays  with  a  sandy  bottom. 

The  group  of  fishes  known  as  ScOPELIDS  is  one  of  particular  interest,  on  account  of  the 
number  of  remarkable  forms  which  it  contains.  For  the  most  part  they  are  inhabitants  of 
the  open  sea,  many  being  found  only  at  great  depths.  Of  the  latter,  some  apparently  come 
to  the  surface  to  feed  at  night,  whilst  others  are  entirely  confined  to  the  abysses  of  the  ocean. 
As  with  the  members  of  other  groups  which  have  adopted  a  deep-sea  habitat,  certain  modifications 
of  the  body  have  become  necessary  in  these  fishes.  Many  of  them  have  a  direct  relation  to  the 
absence  of  light,  which  has  rendered  normal  eyes  of  little  use ;  consequently  the  eyes  of  these 
fishes  have  become  either  greatly  reduced  or  enormously  enlarged,  or  sometimes  lost  altogether. 
As  a  rule  the  large-eyed  forms  are  those  which  come  to  the  surface  at  night  or  do  not  live 
beyond  the  reach  of  daylight;  whilst  those  in  which  the  eyes  are  small  or  reduced  live  in 
the  very  lowest  depths,  far  beyond  the  limit  of  daylight.  In  all  these  forms  compensation 
for  the  loss  of  light  has  taken  place,  generally  by  the  development  of  phosphorescent  organs. 
These  may  take  the  form  of  a  number  of  luminous  areas  distributed  down  each  side  of  the 
body,  as  in  the  PHOSPHORESCENT  SAKIMNK;  or  of  a  pair  of  lens  like  light-producing  organs, 
occupying  the  place  of  the  eyes  of  other  fishes.  Another  eyeless  member  of  the  group,  instead 
of  developing  light-producing  organs,  has  increased  the  length  of  the  ra\  s  of  tin-  paired  tins 
to  an  enormous  extent,  so  that  they  serve  as  delicate  feelers  either  for  the  discovery  of  food 
or  the  detection  of  enemies.  Many  of  th<-  tislu-s  of  this  group  have  extremely  large  mouths, 
armed  with  a  formidable  array  of  tusk-like  teeth,  between  which  are  numerous  smaller  ones. 

As  food-fishes  the  majority  of  the  Scopelids  are  not  of  much  value.  The  species  knoun 
as  the  QUEENSLAND  SMI  I  I.  shown  in  the  adjoining  photograph,  is  .m  edible  species,  occurring 
off  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia.  Its  near  ally,  the  BfMM.M.oE,  or  MDMHAY  DICK,  how- 
ever, enjoys  a  quite  exceptional  notoriety.  Salted  and  dried,  it  is  exported  in  large  quantities 


PIKES,    ARAPAIMAS,    BEAKED    SALMON,    SCOPELIDS     257 

from  Bombay  and  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  forms  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  an  Indian  curry. 
This  fish  apparently  inhabits  considerable  depths,  and  when  freshly  taken  is  brilliantly 
phosphorescent.  Another  edible  species  is  the  "  SERGEANT  BAKER  "  of  Australia,  of  which  a 
photograph  is  given  on  page  653. 

With  regard  to  the  deep-sea  Scopelids,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  in  addition  to  very 
remarkable  modifications  of  the  eyes  and  fins,  and  the  production  of  phosphorescent  light, 
certain  of  the  body-cavities  are  characterised  by  an  intensely  black  coloration.  The  inside  of 
the  mouth,  the  gills,  and  the  lining  of  the  abdomen,  for  example,  are  always  so  coloured  in 
those  fishes  which  inhabit  the  deepest  abysses.  This  coloration  is  difficult  to  account  for,  but 


Phelo  by  W.  Sat/illt-Kinl,  F.Z.S.] 

QUEENSLAND    SMELT 

A  near  ally  of  the  Bummaloe,  or  Bombay  Duck,  that  indisfcnsablt  adjunct  to  an  Indian  curry 

it  is  generally  supposed  to  be  due  to  excretory  products.  Another  interesting  point  concerns 
the  air-bladder.  Whenever  this  organ  is  present  in  the  fishes  of  this  or  any  other  family 
inhabiting  the  abysses  of  the  ocean,  it  bursts  before  the  unfortunate  victim  is  brought  to  the 
surface,  owing  to  the  enormous  differences  in  pressure  which  obtain  between  the  depths  of 
the  sea  and  the  surface. 


CHAPTER    XIII 


THE   SALMON  FAMILY 

BY    SIR    HERBERT    MAXWELL,    BART.,    F.R.S. 

ALTHOUGH  the  Salmon  Family  occupies  a  low  place  in  the  classification  of  fishes,  yet 
every  member  thereof  is  possessed  of  singular  beauty  of  form  and  colour.  The 
ATLANTIC  SALMON,  which  is  the  species  frequenting  European  rivers  and  those  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America,  may  be  considered  the  type  of  the  family,  and  certainly  it 
would  be  difficult  to  name  any  animal  more  perfectly  adapted  to  its  peculiar  mode  of  life, 
which  is  one  of  constant  activity.  A  native  of  fresh-water,  hatched  in  early  spring  from  eggs 
laid  in  rivers  during  the  winter  months,  it  spends  from  fifteen  to  twenty-seven  months  in  the 
shallows  of  the  river,  almost  indistinguishable  in  habits  and  appearance  from  a  small  common 
trout.  Sometimes  in  the  second  spring  after  its  birth,  and  failing  that,  always  in  the  third 
spring,  the  fish,  having  attained  the  length  of  5  or  6  inches,  undergoes  a  wonderful  change: 
its  prevailing  tints  of  olive  and  gold  become  overspread  with  a  glittering  coat  of  silver,  known 


258       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


HUH  h  A.  S.  Rudltnd  *•  Sim 

SALMON-TROUT 

Know*  ala  at  tlit  Sra-trout,  and  in  Ireland  at  thi  Wli'tH  "Trout 


to  anglers  as  the  "sea-jacket," 
and  shoals  of  "  smolts,"  as 
they  arc  called  in  this  st.t-e, 
begin  descending  to  the  sea. 
In  about  fifteen  or  eighteen 
months,  perhaps  in  some 
instances  longer,  they  u-tiirn 
to  the  inland  water- 
"  grilse  "  •  small  salmon  from 
2  to  5  Ibs.  in  weight.  Grilse 
and  mature  salmon  spawn 
chiefly  in  November  and 
December,  undergoing,  before 
they  do  so,  another  strange 
metamorphosis.  Their  brilliant 
silvery  scales  become  darkly  discoloured,  the  males  turning  copper-colour,  the  females  blackish 
and  dull  purple ;  their  elegant  form  becoming  distorted  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  them 
hardly  recognisable  as  the  same  fish  which  left  the  tide  in  the  perfection  of  beauty.  In  their 
efforts  to  reach  the  higher  waters  where  they  spawn,  salmon  display  extraordinary  perseverance 
and  activity  in  surmounting  weirs,  waterfalls,  and  other  obstacles  which  bar  their  way.  After 
spawning,  the  fish  are  emaciated  and  lanky,  but  speedily  regain  the  bright  silver  hue  so 
characteristic  of  the  species.  In  this  state  they  are  usually  known  as  "kelts";  they  are 
worthless  either  for  food  or  for  sport,  and  make  their  way  back  to  the  sea,  where  abundant 
provender  soon  restores  their  condition.  Their  chief  food  consists  of  herrings,  haddocks,  ami 
other  small  fishes.  Dr.  Kingston  Barton  recently  recorded  finding  five  full-grown  herrings  in 
the  stomach  of  one  salmon.  Although  the  excellence  of  their  flesh  exposes  salmon  to  the 
attacks  of  innumerable  foes,  including  man,  predacious  fishes,  seals,  and  cetaceans,  a  few  survive 
for  many  years  and  attain  to  great  size.  Fish  weighing  from  30  to  40  Ibs.  are  far  from 
uncommon ;  one  of  60  Ibs.  has  been  taken  in  the  Tay  with  rod  and  line,  and  the  same  river 
has  yielded  one  of  upwards  of  70  Ibs.  to  the  nets.  The  fine  sport  afforded  to  anglers  by  the 
salmon  causes  a  good  beat  on  a  prolific  river  to  be  a  very  valuable  property.  Two  thousand 
pounds  was  the  season's  rent  paid  a  few  years  ago  for  less  than  three  miles  of  the  Tweed, 
and  the  season  happened  to  be  such  a  bad  one  that  the  lessee  only  killed  thirteen  fish  ! 

Closely  resembling  the  true  salmon  in  habits  and  appearance,  and  sometimes  rivalling 
it  even  in  size,  are  two  kinds  of  sea-trout  —  the  SALMON-TROUT,  greatly  prized  both  for  its 
sporting  qualities  and  for  the  excellence  of  its  flesh,  and  the  Bu. [.-TROUT,  a  very  inferior 
fish  in  both  respects.  Bull-trout  are  not  infrequently  taken  in  the  Tay  weighing  upwards 
of  40  Ibs. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  has  its  counterpart  to  the  Atlantic  salmon  and  sea-trout  in  several 
closely  allied  species,  whereof  the  QuiXNAT  and  the  Sri :i :i  in '\i>  are  the  most  notable.  Tins, 
ascend  the  great  rivers  of  Western  North  America  in  prodigious  shoals,  penetrating  more  than 
2,OOO  miles  inland  to  deposit  their  spawn.  Few  of  these  ti-Oi  survive  to  return  to  the 
sea.  In  their  emaciated  condition  they  succumb  to  exhaustion  and  starvation  ;  their  corp 
piled  to  the  height  of  several  feet,  line  the  banks  of  the  river  tor  miles,  and  contribute 
nothing  to  the  traveler's  comfort.  Although  Pacific  salmon  are  of  no  value  t<>  the  spoilsman, 
as  they  are  said  to  refuse  any  bait  in  fresh-water,  yet  they  arc  the  staple  of  an  important 
trade,  tens  of  thousands  of  tons  being  taken  and  canned  for  export. 

If  we  could  peer  far  enough  back  into  the  course  of  time,  ue  should  no  doubt  be  able 
to  identify  a  common  stock  from  which  all  the  Salmon  Family  are  descended.  That  they  arc 
all  natives  of  fresh-water  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  they  cannot  reproduce  their  kind  in  the 
sea.  Those  that  resort  to  the  ocean  for  food  must  be  the  descendants  of  vigorous,  roving 
members  of  the  family,  which,  having  to  choose  between  starvation  and  migration,  braved  the 


Dr.    Kol'cri   T.    Murrix. 


A    SALMON     LEAPING. 


The  height  to  which  salmon  will  leap  in  ascending  a  waterfall  is  little  short  of  marvellous.     When  the  fall  is  very  high 
tin-  ascent  is  often  accomplished  in  a  series  of  leaps,  the  fish  resting  in  pools  of  comparatively  still  watei. 


THE    SALMON    FAMILY 


259 


perils  of  travel,  and  became  so  much  altered  in  constitution  by  the  liberal  diet   they   found 
as  to  establish  themselves  as  separate  species. 

Among  the  stay-at-homes  there  are  many  interesting  and  beautiful  fishes.  None  of  them 
exhibit  the  variable  nature  of  the  family  more  than  the  common  BROOK-TROUT  of  British 
waters,  and  not  long  since  men  of  science  dignified  each  of  these  varieties  by  a  separate 
title,  treating  them  as  distinct  species.  However,  experiment  and  observation  have  now  led  to 
the  almost  unanimous  conclusion  that  the  pygmy  denizens  of  some  hungry  Highland  burn, 
whereof  the  weight  must  be  reckoned  in  fractions  of  ounces,  are  of  precisely  the  same 
species  as  the  lordly  trout  of  deep  lakes,  which  sometimes  scales  as  much  as  25  Ibs., 
and  as  all  the  other  innumerable  varieties,  such  as  the  trout  of  the  Thames,  of  the 
English  chalk-streams,  and  of  the  Irish  loughs.  The  quality  of  the  soil  affects  the  food- 
supply,  which  in  turn  regulates  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  fish.  Moreover,  Nature  seems 
indifferent  to  the  number  of  individuals  composing  the  population  which  the  water  is  to 
sustain.  If  there  are  no  pike,  and  spawning-ground  is  abundant,  there  will  be  many  and  small 
fish;  if  the  contrary  is  the  case,  there  will  be  few  and  large  ones;  the  aggregate  weight  per 
acre  of  water  will  remain  the  same,  proportioned  to  the  food-supply.  The  American  equivalent 
of  the  British  brook-trout  is  the  RAINBOW-TROUT,  a  beautiful  creature  which  has  lately  been 
widely  distributed  in  European  waters.  What  is  known  as  the  brook-trout  in  America  really 
belongs  to  the  CHAR  group,  fish  of  the  Salmon  Family,  closely  resembling  trout,  but  distinguished 
from  them  by  extraordinary  brilliancy  of  colour.  Common  trout,  like  salmon,  lose  all  their 
beauty  as  the  spawning-season  approaches.  Char,  on  the  other  hand,  take  gaudy  colouring 
at  that  time,  the  whole  of  the  under-parts  becoming  clear  red  or  flame-colour.  Unlike  trout, 
British  char  never  enter  rivers,  but  spawn  in  lakes.  In  Norway,  however,  char  descend  to 
the  sea.  The  distribution  of  char  is  indeed  mysterious,  nor  has  any  explanation  been  offered 
why  they  inhabit  certain  waters,  while  other  lakes  in  the  neighbourhood,  apparently  equally 
suitable,  contain  none. 

The  GRAYLING  is  an  elegant  member  of  the  Salmon  Family,  and  a  deserved  favourite  with 
fly-fishers.  Instead  of  the  golden  tints  and  scarlet  spots  of  the  brook-trout,  this  fish  displays 
the  silvery  colouring  of  the  salmon-trout.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  meet  with  grayling 
in  the  chalk-streams  of  Southern  England  weighing  3  Ibs.  and  upwards. 

The  POWAN  is  the  type  of  another  large  group  of  salmon-like  fishes,  inhabiting  lakes  in  the 
temperate  and  sub- 


arctic  regions  of  both 
hemispheres.  There 
are  four  species  in 
Great  Britain,  among 
which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  mysterious 
VENUACE  of  Loch- 
maben,  unknown  to 
exist  elsewhere. 

Lastly,  the 
Salmon  Family  is 
closed  by  the  delicate 
SMELT, called  inScot- 
land  the  SPARLING, 
which  is  netted  in 
vast  numbers  in  the 
estuaries  of  suitable 
rivers.  It  never 
ascends  beyond  the 
highest  point  of  the 


":.      ••,  „.•::. --~~  -••    •    •:":    ' 


"*.f,  ir  If.  Rlid]  [Ifiihtrw,  N.B. 

AMERICAN    SALMON-TROUT    FROM    DIAMOND    LAKE, 
NEW    ZEALAND 

These  fish  "were  taken  out  of  the  tvater  to  he  photographed,  and  then  put  back  again 


260       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


tide,  where  it  deposits  its  spawn  in  the  spring  months.  It  is  a  gratifying  tribute  to  the 
good  work  done  of  late  years  by  the  local  authorities  in  purifying  the  Thames  that,  after 
a  long  absence,  this  valuable  fish  has  reappeared  in  that  river,  which  it  now  ascends  in  con- 
siderable numbers  as  high  as  Teddington  Weir. 

Much  discussion  has  taken  place  recently  with  regard    to  the  question  whether   salmon 

feed  while  in  fresh-water. 
Not  long  ago  it  was 
announced  that  they 
suffered  from  a  diseased 
condition  of  the  stomach 
during  this  period,  and 
wore  consequently  quite 

L  unable   to  feed.     Subse- 

quently it  was  ft  ui  iii  I 
that  the  supposed  dis- 
eased condition  of  the 
stomach  was  due  to  the 
fishes  not  being  perfectly 
fresh  when  they  were  examined.  It  is  now  known  that  although  salmon  do  not  feed  fi 
in  fresh-water,  yet  they  take  a  certain  amount  of  nutriment,  such  as  an  occasional  shrimp,  fly, 
or  even  small  fish,  while  there. 


fxat 


*•  Ini 


SMELT 
TKiftkn  nrntrktUtfir  its  ftcuRar  tmdl  viki*  frttU)  caugkt,  tukiek  rtumklit  tkat  of  tke  c  Hcumie  r 


CHAPTER     XIV 
THE   HERRING   AND  ITS  KINDRED 

BY    F.    G.    AFLALO,   F.Z.S. 

KING  HERRING,"  as  the  trade-paper  of  the  fishing  industry  rightly  calls  it,  is  one  of 
the  chief  commercial  fishes  of  the  British  seas,  and  the  enormous  North  Sea  herring 
fisheries  probably  support  more  boats  and  men  from  all  parts  than  any  other.     Kurope 
has  no  very  large  herring;  but  the  TARPON'  of  the  Mexican  coast,  as  well  as  another  giant  which 
occurs  in  the  northern  waters  of  Australia,  grows  to  an  enormous  size.     All  the  members  of  the 
Herring  Family  feed  and  travel  near  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  are  therefore  caught  in  drift- 
nets,  miles   of  which    are  "shot"   a    few    fathoms    from    the    top    of  the   water,  catching    the 
shoaling-fish  in  their  meshes.     All  of  them,  too,  are  wanderers,  most  capricicjs  in  their  goings 
and  comings.     Hence  the  uncertainty  of  the  fisherman's  wage. 

The  principal  kinsmen  of  the  herring  in  British  seas  are  the  Sl'RAT  and  PII.CIIAKH,  though 
the  two  kinds  of  SHAD,  which,  like  the  salmon,  ascend  certain  rivers  for  spawning  purposes, 
also  support  a  number  of  fishermen;  and  the  ANCHOVY  is.  authorities  have  lately  suspected, 
sufficiently  numerous  on  the  British  coasts  to  repay  a  regular  fishery,  if  the  men  could  be 
induced  to  try  the  experiment  and  use  a  sufficiently  fine-meshed  net  for  this  little  fish. 

The  HEKRI.M;  of  the  more  northern  waters  is  larger  than  that  of  the  English  Channel, 
17  inches  being  recorded  as  its  maximum  size  in  the  former,  as  against  only  \2\  inches  farther 
south.  In  the  Baltic,  however,  the  writer  found  the  herrings  still  smaller  than  those  of  the 
English  Channel.  The  herring  lacks  the  lateral  line,  already  alluded  to  in  other  fishes;  its 
scales  are  large  and  thin;  its  under-cdge  is  smooth  and  keeled  ;  and  the  male  is  slightly  the 
larger  of  the  two  sexes.  The  Si'k  AT,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  smaller  species.  It  has  no  teetli ; 
its  belly  is  saw  edged ;  its  back  fin  starts  nearer  the  tail  than  that  of  the  herring.  The 
herring,  moreover,  differs  from  the  sprat,  and  indeed  from  all  our  most  important  fishes,  in  that 
its  eggs  sink  to  the  bottom  The  eggs  of  almost  all  other  sea-fish  float  at  or  near  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  so  that  the  herring's  spawn  alone  can  be  damaged  by  the  operations  of  the  ground- 


THE    HERRING    AND    ITS    KINDRED 


261 


?b,l,  by  W.  Savilli-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 


[Milfard-an-Sta 


OX-EYED    HERRING 

This  species  attains  a  length  of  several  feet 


sweeping  trawl-net.     The  shad's  eggs  also  sink  to  the  bottom,  but  are  deposited  in  the  less 
buoyant  waters  of  rivers. 

The  PILCHARD,  the  all-important  fish  (together  with  mackerel)  on  the  south-west  coast  of 
England,  is  of  a  more  decided  green  hue  than  either  of  the  foregoing.  Its  scales  are  large  and 
coarse,  and  its  back-fin  starts  closer  to  the  head  than  in  the  rest.  The  pilchard  of  Cornwall  and 
the  sardine  of  the  Mediterranean  are  one  and  the  same  fish  in  different  stages  of  growth  —  that  is 
to  say,  the  pilchard  is  a  grown-up  sardine.  The  late  Matthias  Dunn  of  Mevagissey  was  one  of 
the  first  practical  fishermen  to  accept  this  identity,  and  the  flourishing  sardine  factory  at  his 
native  town  bears  lasting  witness  to  his  enterprise.  Although,  from  the  economic  standpoint, 
we  associate  the  pilchard  with  the  extreme  south-west  of  the  English  Channel,  the  fish  finds  its 
way  to  more  eastern  counties.  The  writer  has  found  it  at  both  Bournemouth  and  Ventnor; 
and  it  is  taken,  though  sparsely,  in  the  herring-nets  of  the  North  Sea  fleets. 

The  ANCHOVY,  smaller  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  projecting, 
shark-like  snout  and  deeply  cleft  mouth.  It  is  seen  in  England  only  pickled  for  table  purposes, 
but  the  writer  used  fresh  anchovies  for  bait  almost  daily  during  a  stay  of  four  months  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  two  shads  —  the  ALLIS  SHAD  and  TWAITE  SHAD — are  in  some  respects,  though  less 
important  commercially,  the  most  interesting  of  the  family.  Their  habit  of  coming  up  rivers  to 
spawn,  like  salmon,  has  been  already  noticed,  but  they  appear  to  be  more  difficult  to  please  than 
the  other  fish.  The  Severn  used  to  be  a  noted  shad-river,  but  the  fishery  has  fallen  off  of 
late  years.  The  ALLIS  SHAD  grows  to  a  weight  of  7  or  8  Ibs.,  and  its  pale  green  and  silver 
scales  are  varied  by  some  darker  spots  at  irregular  intervals  on  the  shoulders  and  sides.  The 
edge  of  the  belly  is  serrated,  like  that  of  the  sprat.  The  fish  has  a  curious  transparent 
eyelid,  and  its  other  peculiarities  include  an  abnormally  large  number  of  gill-rakers,  through 
which  the  water  filters  much  as  it  does  through  the  "  whalebone  "  of  whales.  Its  food  is  said 
to  consist  of  small  fishes  and  shrimps,  as  well  as  of  vegetable  substances.  Though  usually 
caught,  for  market  purposes,  in  a  seine-net,  which  is  slipped  round  the  shoal  in  shallow  water, 
the  shad  is  now  and  then  taken  on  the  hook,  and  instances  of  this  are  on  record  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Deal. .  The  rivers  of  Morocco  are  very  productive  of  shad,  particularly  the 
BOUREGREG  at  Rabat,  and  the  UM  ERBEYA  at  Azimur.  At  the  latter  town  the  writer  has 
bought  newly  caught  shad  weighing  5  or  6  Ibs.  for  native  money  equivalent  to  as  many  pence, 


262       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

and  very  excellent  fish  they  proved  in  camp.  The  T  \v.\m:  SIIAD  is  a  somewhat  smaller  fish, 
attaining  to  a  maximum  weight  of  'perhaps  a  couple  of  pounds.  It  is  not  known  to  differ 
materially  in  habits  from  the  larger  spci 

Reverting  for  a  moment  to  the  herring  as  a  type  of  the  family,  a  few  words  may  be  said 
on  some  very  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  its  life-history  and  commercial  uses.  In 
the  first  place,  the  fact  that  the  spawn  sinks  to  the  bottom  is  of  more  importance  than 
would  at  first  sight  appear,  since  it  not  only  exposes  this  spawn  to  disturbance  by  the  trawl, 
but  also  subjects  it  to  the  voracity  of  cod,  haddock,  and  other  ground-feeding  fishes.  Some 
little  protection  is  afforded  by  a  natural  provision  which  enables  the  eggs  to  adhere  to  stones 
and  weeds,  but  this  cannot  in  the  long-run  be  of  much  service  against  prowling  fishes.  The 
eggs  of  the  shad,  which  likewise  sink  (in  fresh-water),  do  not  adhere  in  this  way. 

The  migrations  of  the  herring,  again,  have  furnished  almost  as  much  material  for  argument 
to  marine  biologists  as  the  migrations  of  birds  in  ornithological  circles.  Older  naturalists 
described  marvellous  Arctic  journeyings  with  careful  attention  to  detail,  much  of  which  is 
now  repudiated.  Later  theories  hold  that  the  shoals  of  herrings  simply  move,  according  to 


tbulf  If.  Ittnlli- Km,  r.Z.S.]  [Milf*rd-»m-Sif 

BARBELLED    ARAPAIMA 

Kivwn  alu  ai  ite  Daviwn  Rivtr  Salmon,  on  account  of  tkt  colour  and  flavour  of  in  flctk 

changes  in  the  weather  and  temperature,  backwards  and  forwards  between  the  shore  and  the 
deeper  water  outside;  and  so  far  as  the  fishermen  are  concerned,  the  mere  fact  of  the  fish 
moving  at  any  season  of  the  year  beyond  reach  of  their  drift-nets,  which  work  at  only 
moderate  distances  from  the  land,  would  be  quite  sufficient  to  convince  them  that  the  absent 
fish  had  departed  on  world-wide  travels.  Much  of  the  former  acceptance  of  these  extensive 
migrations  may  have  been  due  to  confusion  between  the  goings  and  comings  <>f  the  different 
races  of  herrings  now  recognised  by  biologists.  It  is  also  probable  that,  when  the  identity  and 
movements  of  these  different  "races"  are  more  firmly  established,  we  shall  be  able  to  clear 
up  many  of  the  difficulties  at  present  surrounding  the  spawning-time  of  the  herring,  and  to 
show  that  it  does  not,  as  sometimes  alleged,  deposit  its  spawn  at  every  season  of  the  \  ear 
indiscriminately,  but  that  some  herrings  spawn  at  one  season,  -,,me  at  another.  Although 
the  herring  is  not,  individually  and  by  comparison  with  some  other  sea-fish,  an  enormously 
fertile  fish,  its  numbers  must  be  fairly  large,  when  \\e  bear  in  mind  that  something  like 
50,000  crans  a  week  arc,  in  good  MUOns,  packed  in  Shetland  alone.  Taking,  as  an  average, 
750  fish  to  the  cran,  this  gives  a  weekly  curing  of  not  far  short  of  40,000,000  of  herrings 
in  a  single  fishery.  Owing  indeed  to  the  property,  already  noted,  of  adhering  to  stones 


THE    HERRING    AND    ITS    KINDRED 


263 


and  rocks,  it  is  improbable  that  even  the  trawl  troubles  the  eggs  to  any  appreciable  extent, 
as  the  stony  ground  on  which  the  herrings  generally  spawn  is  not  suited  to  the  operations 
of  the  trawler.  The  spawning  and  life-history  of  the  herring  are,  in  fact,  the  converse 
of  those  of  the  plaice.  The  former  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  ground  close  inshore,  and  the 
young  herrings,  almost  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  steer  for  the  open  sea  and  live  near 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  flat-fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  deposit  eggs  that  float  at  the 
surface  some  distance  from  the  shore;  and  the  young  plaice  and  soles,  when  hatched,  come 
inshore  and  take  up  their  residence  close  to  the  bed  of  the  sea. 

It  would  be  improper  to  conclude  this  account  of  the  Herring  Family  without  a  passing 
reference  to  the  commercial  mixture  known  as  "  WHITEBAIT."     Until  comparatively  late  in  the. 


AUSTRALIAN    PILCHARDS 

Distinct  from  the  British  spirits 

last  century  whitebait  was  regarded,  even  by  scientific  men,  as  a  distinct  species,  and  there 
were  even  some  who  declared  that  they  had  identified  peculiar  characters.  It  is  now,  however, 
common  knowledge  that  the  so-called  "  whitebait"  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  mixture 
of  young  herrings  and  sprats,  the  former  predominating  in  summer,  the  latter  in  winter. 
Other  fishes  are  also  found  in  the  dish,  and,  appropriately  enough,  at  a  recent  banquet 
given  by  the  Worshipful  Company  of  Fishmongers,  at  which  the  writer  had  the  pleasure 
of  "  assisting,"  a  plate  of  whitebait  was  found  to  include  no  sprats,  but  the  fry  of 
herrings,  gurnards,  and  sand-eels:  this  was  in  the  month  of  July.  Whitebait  are  caught 
in  special  fine-meshed  nets  in  river-estuaries;  and  although  they  make  a  capital  dish  for 
the  epicure,  the  large  supplies  needed  for  the  restaurants  probably  entail  a  most  regrettable 
sacrifice  of  valuable  food-fishes,  which,  if  left  a  year  or  two,  would  provide  food  for  ten 
times  the  number  of  consumers.  It  would,  however,  be  too  much  to  expect  that  epicures 
should  give  up  such  an  unrivalled  dish  for  this  cause.  Moreover,  if  these  little  fishes  were 
not  captured  by  man,  it  is. highly  probable  that  a  large  proportion  would  fall  victims  to  birds 
or  other  fishes. 


CHAPTER    XV 


BONT  PIKE,   B01V-FIN,   STURGEON,  REED-FISH,   AND   BICHIR 

BY    W.    P.    PYCRAFT,    A.L.S.,    F.Z.S. 

THE  present  chapter  deals  with  the  remaining  forms  belonging  to  that  great  assemblage 
of  fishes  known  as  the  Bony-mouthed  group,  which  includes  all  the  members  of  the 
class  save  the  Lung-fishes  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Shark  Tribe  on  the  other. 

This  great  assemblage,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  is  divided  into  two  sections  —  the 
Fan-  and  Fringe-finncd  Fishes.  The  fishes  presently  to  be  described  belong  partly  to  the  <>nc 
and  partly  to  the  other  of  these  divisions,  and  were  at  one  time,  together  with  the  Lung-li>lu-s. 
regarded  as  nearly  allied,  and  as  forming  but  a  single  group,  which,  on  account  of  the  structure 
of  the  scales,  was  known  as  the  Enamel-scaled  group. 

The  BONY  PIKE,  the  BOW-KIN,  and  the  STURGEON  are  the  last  of  the  Fan-finncd  Fislu-s. 

The  BONY  I'IKE,  or  GAR-PIKE,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  fresh-waters  of  North  America,  and 
has  the  most  completely  ossified  skeleton  and  the  most  perfectly  jointed  backbone  of  all  the 
fishes,  whilst  externally  it  is  covered  with  a  complete  armour  of  thick,  quadrangular  scales 
coated  with  enamel.  Three  distinct  species  of  this  family  are  known,  all  of  which  arc  of 
large  size,  attaining  a  length  of  6  feet.  They  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  lying  in  wait 
among  the  reeds,  and  rushing  out  to  seize  their  prey  as  soon  as  within  range.  In  the 
Mississippi,  great  lakes,  and  rivers  of  South  Carolina  bony  pike  are  especially  abundant, 
occurring  at  times  in  such  numbers  as  to  fill  the  shad-nets  and  render  the  fishery  for  many 
days  impossible.  The  larger  members  are  said  to  be  as  aggressive  as  sharks,  and  remarkably 
tenacious  of  life. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  BOW-KIN  closely  corresponds  with  that  of  the  bony  pike. 
It  is  an  extremely  common  fish,  and,  though  worthless  for  food  purposes,  has  yet  been  deemed 
worthy  of  a  number  of  different  names,  such  as  GRINDLE,  Doo-l  isn.  SAWYER,  Mu>-ii>il.  and 
LAWYER-FISH.  At  one  time  it  was  regarded  as  a  near  ally  of  the  Herring  Tribe,  but  modern 
research  has  shown  this  view  to  be  erroneous.  The  bow-fin  attains  a  length  of  about  2  feet, 
and  is  very  voracious,  preying  both  upon  other  fishes  and  aquatic  insects  and  shrimps.  It  has 
a  habit  of  coming  frequently  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  especially  when  the  water  is  foul, 
taking  in  large  mouthfuls  of  air.  When  near  the  surface,  it  is  said  to  utter  a  bell-like  note, 


~ 


BONY    PIKE 

O*€  of  tkt  vtry  fno  turvtvtri  oj  tke  aitiitmt  group  of 

264 


i.-Att 


BONY  PIKE,  BOW-FIN,  STURGEON,  REED-FISH,  BICHIR      265 


probably  caused  by  the  escape 
of  air  from  the  air-bladder. 
During  the  breeding-season 
the  male  takes  entire  charge 
of  the  eggs. 

The  STURGEONS  differ 
from  the  other  fan-finned 
fishes  in  many  particulars. 

To   begin  with,  the  skeleton    L 

is  almost  entirely  cartilagi- 
nous instead  of  bony,  whilst 
externally  the  body  is  either 
naked  or  covered  with  bony 

bucklers,  arranged  symmetrically.  The  snout  is  prolonged  into  a  more  or  less  shovel-shaped 
beak,  used  for  turning  over  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  in  search  of  prey,  and  in 
some  forms  this  becomes  further  developed  into  a  spoon-shaped  paddle,  constituting  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  appendages  of  fishes. 

Sturgeons   grow  to    a   large   size,   and    are    the  largest    of  the   fresh-water    fishes    of  the 
northern  hemisphere.     The  GlANT  STURGEON  of  the  Black   and  Caspian  Seas  and  the  Sea  of 


o  by  A.  S.  Rudland  <&*  Sent 

STURGEON 

The  air-bladder  of  the  iturgeon  is  used  for  making  isinglass t  its  roe  for  caviare 


Photo  fV  d>  S.  Rudland  &  Sena 

STERLET 

A  smaller  species  of  the  Sturgeon  group 

Azoff  attains  a  length  of  24   feet,  and   sometimes  more,  specimens  of  3,200  Ibs.  weight  having 

been  recorded. 

On  account  of  the  wholesomeness  of  their  flesh,  sturgeons  are  highly  esteemed  wherever 

they  are  found.     In    Russian    rivers    they   are    very    abundant,    regular    fishing-stations    being 

established  for  their  capture.     The  approach  of  a  shoal  of  fish  is  announced  by  a  watchman, 

and  it  is  said  as  many  as 
15,000  sturgeon  have  been 
captured  at  one  of  these  sta- 
tions in  a  single  day.  Should 
the  fishing  be  suspended  for  a 
short  time,  the  fish  assemble 
in  such  numbers  as  to  form  a 
solid  mass,  completely  block- 
ing a  river  400  feet  in  width 
and  25  feet  in  depth. 

phmt.  A,  s.  Rud'.and  ar&ii.  From    the   roe  of  these 

BICHIR  fishes    caviare    is    made,   and 

A  second  representative  of  the  Enamel-scaled  group  isinglaSS  from  the  inner  lining 


266       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


StUtiH,  HHII.  C..] 


[Ptntn'i  Gntn 


fftlt  tit  rti 


BICHIR 

arkahlt  fnltti  cm  tkt  bock  and  tkl  ftcufiar  aruclun  tf  ike  treait-fns 


of  the  air-bladder.  But 
the  best-flavoured  flesh 
and  the  finest  caviare  are 
obtained  from  a  compara- 
tively small  form,  the 
Sri.K!  1:1,  a  species  which 
does  not  exceed  a  yard  in 
length.  It  is  common  in 
the  Black  and  Caspian 
.  the  Siberian  rivers, 
and  the  Danube  as  far  as 
Vienna. 

With  the  Sturgeons 
we  come  to  the  end  of  ' 
the  Fan-finned  Fishes. 
The  Fringe-finned  group 
are  represented  to-day 
only  by  the  BicuiR  and  the  REED-FISH.  These  are  extremely  interesting  forms,  if  only 
because  they  are  the  sole  survivors  of  a  once  numerous  tribe,  the  remains  of  which  occur 
as  fossils  in  some  of  the  oldest  geological  formations.  They  arc  known  as  Fringe-firmed 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  rays  which  support  the  fin-membrane  in  the  paired  fins  are 
ranged  round  a  lobe-shaped  base,  instead  of  running  directly  backwards  to  the  body.  As  in 
the  bony  pike,  the  body  is  clothed  externally  by  large  quadrangular  bony  plates  of  considerable 
thickness,  and  coated  with  a  layer  of  enamel. 

The  BlCHlR,  which  is  found  in  the  Nile  and  other  tropical  rivers  of  Africa,  is  easily 
recognised  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  back-fin,  which  takes  the  form  of  a  series  of  detached 
finlets,  varying  .in  number  from  eight  to  eighteen.  The  length  attained  by  the  bichir  is 
about  4  feet.  Gill-breathing  is  supplemented  by  the  air-bladder,  which  is  used  as  a  respiratory 
organ,  the  expired  air  escaping  by  a  slit,  known  as  the  "  spiracle."  The  young  bichir  breathes, 
like  a  tadpole,  by  means  of  large  external  gills,  projecting  backwards  on  each  side  of  the 
head;  later  these  are  replaced  by  the  more  efficiently  protected  internal  gills. 

The  only  surviving  relative  of  the  bichir  is  the  REED-FISH  of  Old  Calabar,  which  differs 
by  its  eel-like  form  and  the  absence  of  the  hinder  paired  fins. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

- 

SHARKS  AND  RAYS 

BY    F.  C.  AFLALO,   F.Z.5. 

TWO  prevalent  errors  with  reference  to  sharks  continually  recur  in  England.  The  first 
is  local,  and  has  reference  to  the  absence  of  "  proper  "  sharks,  \\  hatever  that  may 
mean,  from  British  waters.  The  second,  of  wider  application,  holds  that  all  sharks  are 
dangerous  to  man.  When,  some  few  years  ago,  the  writer  addressed  ,i  letter  to  the  Times 
newspaper,  warning  yachting-men  against  summer  bathing  in  deep  water  in  Cornwall,  a  host 
of  critics  accused  him  of  a  tendency  to  pose  as  an  alarmist,  and  insisted  that  he  was 
confusing  sharks  with  dog-fish.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  the  distinction  between  the  two 
groups  is  in  some  cases  extremely  slight — it  does  not  even  rely  on  si/e,  for  there  are  dog- 
fishes which  attain  to  larger  dimensions  than  the  smallest  sharks — these  gentlemen  were  wholly 
in  error,  since  four  sharks  at  any  rate  are  very  common  in  Cornish  seas,  and  even  occur  in 
lesser  numbers  on  other  parts  of  the  British  coasts.  The  largest  of  these,  the  great  BASKIM-- 


Fhtla  fa  «-'.  Savillt-Ktnt,  *'.£.;>. j  [Milftrit-en-Sia 

WOLLIBONG,   OR    CARPET-SHARK 

The  leaf'like  frocesses  surrounding  the  head  serve  to  attract  prey,  'while  the  shark  lies  concealed  on  the  sea-bottom 


Fbala  fa  U-'.  Savilli-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.] 

SPOTTED   SHARK 

Note  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  tail,  and  the  aperture  behind  the  eye,  kno-wn  as  the  **  spiracle  " 

267 


268      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

SHARK  (of  which  a  photograph,  taken  at  Mevagissey,  is  given  below),  illustrates  in  its  harmless 
person  the  fallacy  of  condemning  nil  sharks  as  man-eaters,  since  in  this,  the  largest  of  its 
race,  we  have  an  absolutely  innocuous  fish.  From  its  habit  of  lying  at  the  surface  with  the 
large  back-fin  erect,  it  is  also  known  as  the  Sail-fish,  while  the  equally  appropriate  name  of 
Sun-fish  sometimes  causes  confusion  with  other  British  fishes  properly  so  called. 

A  commoner  British  shark  is  the  BLUE  SHARK,  small  examples  of  which,  weighing  30 
or  40  Ibs.,  the  writer  has  often  killed  with  the  rod  at  Mevagissey.  When  thus  hooked,  this 
fish  has  a  curious  and  very  trying  habit  of  revolving  rapidly  in  the  water,  scoring  its  own 
granulated  skin  with  the  line.  The  PORBEAC.I.K-SHARK,  another  Cornish  species,  is  of  thicker 
build  than  the  last,  and  swims  with  far  less  graceful  movements.  It  is  a  deep  brown  colour 
above,  and  its  general  outline  may  be  likened  to  that  of  a  torpedo.  The  I'"OX-SHAI\K,  or 


/•*«.»,  J   Dtltj  Smith] 


BASKING-SHARK 


Kegutfrlj  kur.ttd  en  iki  ma  caatt  af  Inland  far  tht  ukt  of  lie  ail  attainaklt  from  in  liver.      Nate  the  keel  ty  tht  iide  of  ike  ur! 

THRESHER,  so  often  seen  on  hot  summer  days  leaping  out  of  water  among  the  pilchard-shoals. 
is  easily  recognised,  even  at  considerable  distances,  by  the  disproportionately  long  upper  1 
of  the  tail-fin.  This  is  the  shark  which  attacks  certain  of  the  Whale  Tribe.  Many  who 
stay  at  home  find  it  agreeable  to  cast  doubt  on  the  ^tory  ;  but  the  writer  has,  in  Australian 
seas,  witnessed  the  sight  of  two  of  these  sharks  flinging  themselves  on  the  back  of  an 
apparently  exhausted  whale  in  such  unmistakable  circumstances  that  the  only  alternative 
(which  the  reader  may  accept,  if  preferred)  is  to  suppose  that  they  were  all  congenial 
playmates. 

tore  specifying  some  general  characters  of  this  interesting  group  of  predatory  tithes,  it 

may  be  as  well  briefly  to  summarise  the  BUITISII    1  >"<.-H-III>  ;    for  the   HAMMI  Kill: AD-SII AKK, 

very  common   in  southern  seas,   is   so    rare   a  visitor    to    Britain    .is    to    be    negligible    in   an 

••ime  of  the  group.     The  dog-fishes,  then,  which  trouble   fishermen  are  the  SM'»MII   II<>r\i> 


SHARKS    AND    RAYS 


269 


i 


and     ROUGH    HOUND,     the 

NURSE,  the  PICKED  DOG,  and 

the  SILVER  DOG,  or  TOPE. 

The    NURSE    and    ROUGH 

HOUND  are  spotted  leopards 

of  the  sea,  and  the  latter  has  a 

very  curious  property.     If  a 

fresh-caught  "row- hound,"  as 

the  fishermen  pronounce  the 

name,  be  put  in  a  basket  or 

boat's  well  with  pollack  and 

other  fishes, the  points  of  con- 
tact will  be  marked  by  dis- 
coloration of  its  neighbours. 

This  is  probably  due  to  some 

acrid  and  bleaching  secretion 

of  the  row-hound's  skin,  for 

which    some    economic    use 

might  possibly  be  found.  The 

PICKED  DOG,  or  SPUR-DOG, 

has  very  sharp  spines  in  front 

of  both    back-fins,   and    has 

therefore  to   be   handled   by 

the  fishermen  very  cautiously,  often  punishing  their  hands  badly  when  entangled  at  night  in  the 

nets.     Of  SMOOTH   HOUNDS  there  are-  two  species  or  varieties,  between  which  there  is  some 

confusion,  and  in  one  at  any  rate  there  are   interesting  anatomical  peculiarities  in  the  unborn 

fish  (like  many  other  sharks  and  dog-fishes,  the  smooth  hound  bears  living  young  instead  of 

depositing  eggs),  any  account  of  which  would  obviously  be  out  of  place  in  so  short  a  description. 
Generally  speaking,  then,  the  sharks  are  cartilaginous  fishes,  having  the  upper  lobe  of  the 

tail  larger  than  the  lower,  a  shovel-shaped   snout,  and  the  crescent-shaped  mouth  beneath  the 

head.  Another  peculiar  feature  of  the  group  is  the  presence  of  breathing-spiracles  behind 

the  eyes ;  while  the  latter 
have  a  manner  of  blinking 
not  found  in  other  fishes.  Of 
the  teeth,  which  differ  in 
structure  from  those  of  other 
kinds  of  fishes,  there  are 
several  rows.  The  gill-open- 
ings are  lateral,  and  usually 
number  five,  though  one 
species  has  six  and  another 
seven.  With  the  exception 
of  the  afore-mentioned  BASK- 


Phnt  kj  If.  Savllli-Kint.  F.Z.S/) 


OCELLATED    DOG-FIgH 

So  called  from  the  presence  of  the  eye-tike  spots  on  the  body,  two  of  -which  can  be  seen  above  the 

breast-fins 


Phtlt  fy  A.  S.  Rudland  &-  S>«: 

INDIAN    STING-RAY 

The  tail  is  armed  -with  a  powerful  poison-spine 

18 


ING-SHARK  and  the  PORT 
JACKSON  SHARK,  which  the 
writer  met  with  in  Australia, 
they  are  all  more  or  less 
dangerous;  and  when  of  in- 
sufficient size  to  be  harmful 
to  man,  do  great  damage 
among  the  lines  and  nets  of 
the  fishermen.  Tndeed,  the 


270       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


J 


' 


Mm  tr  IT.  St\  ill,  Ki*i,  r.Z  J.I  \.\Mf»rd-**.Si* 

HORNED  OX-RAY,    OR    DEVIL-FISH 

TUi  iffdll  aid  in  allitl  attain  enormoui  prcpcrt'citl.      One  taken  at   Barkadoet  required  irven 
yoke  of  oxen  to  draiv  it 


late  Matthias  Dunn  of  Meva- 
gissey  seriously  urged  on  the 
Admiralty  to  dynamite  them 
in  the  interests  of  the  fishing 
industry.  Mostof  the  sharks 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
curious  oblong  vessels  known 
by  those  who  pick  up  the 
disused  cases  on  the  fore- 
shore as  "purses";  and 
these  attach  themselves  to 
rocks  and  stones  by  long 
tendrils  that  cling  to  every 
support-  A  number  of 
species  (the  PORl'.i  M.I  I  and 
Ton-:  among  British  kinds}, 
however,  bring  forth  their 
young  alive. 

Between  the  Sharks  and 
Rays  there  is  a  curious  and 
interesting  link  in  the  form 
ofthc  MI  INK-HSU, or.\M,Ki.- 
KISH,  which  is  common  on 
all  sandy  shores,  and  a  fre- 
quent victim  of  the  trawl.  Such  local  names  as  Mongrel-skate  and  Shark-ray  indicate  a  wide- 
spread acceptance  of  its  intermediate  position  between  the  two  groups  under  notice.  Like  some 
of  the  sharks  already  noticed,  it  produces  living  young,  and  its  maximum  size  may  be 
set  down  as  at  any  rate  over  7  feet.  The  writer  measured  and  weighed  one  trawled  in 
Bournemouth  Bay  during  the  summer  of  1896.  Its  length  was  nearly  4^  feet,  and  its  weight 
rather  less  than  50  Ibs. 
Like  many  of  the  rays,  this 
species  feeds  to  a  great  ex- 
tent on  flat-fishes. 

In  outward  form  the 
monk-fish,  though  it  is  in 
reality  more  nearly  allied  to 
the  sharks,  brings  us  by  an 
easy  transition  to  the  flattened 
KAYS,  with  their  long  whip- 
like  tails  and  pointed  snouts. 
There  are  a  dozen,  or  rather 
more  if  we  count  casual  visi- 
tors, of  these  skates  and  rays 
in  British  seas,  the  largest 
being  the  great  EAGLE-RAY. 
examples  of  which  have  been 
recorded  of  the  enormous 
weight  of  i.ooo  Ibs.  Many 
of  the  smaller  kinds  are 

studded   with   sharp  spines,  ?*,»!,  >r.  ilt,ui..K.,,,  >./.>.] 

curved  in  some  species,  and  \vniP-TAILF.D  STING-RAY 

the      TlI'iKM:  V   K      OWCS      tO  K,,»t.rV,  are  ah»*d*»,  ,n  ,,<?,<al  uai 


SHARKS    AND    RAYS 


271 


Phut 


.  Savilli-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 

SHOVEL-NOSED    SKATE 
Known  also  as  the  Halavi  Ray 


\_MilJirtt-tn-Sia 


these  its   trivial  name.     All 

these  rays,  in  fact,  have  some 

form  or  other  of  formidable 

offensive  and  defensive  appa- 
ratus.    The  STING-RAY   has 

on  its  tail  a  fearful  serrated 

dagger,  6  or  8  inches  long  in 

large   examples ;    while   the 

TORPEDO-  or  NUMB-FISH  has 

electric  organs  in  the  head, 

with  the  aid  of  which  it  can 

give  ashock  sufficiently  strong 

to    paralyse    the    fishes    on 

which  it  feeds. 

Two  interesting  peculi- 
arities   of  the   rays    deserve 

notice    in     concluding    this 

chapter.     The    first    is    that 

their  egg-purses,   instead  of 

attaching     themselves    with 

filaments  to  weeds  and  rocks, 

like  those  of  the  sharks,  are 

provided    with    a   sticky    secretion  which    answers    the    same    purpose    of  anchoring  them  in 

security    from    currents    that   would    carry    them    out   into  deep,   cold  water.     The  second  is 

the    sexual  difference    in    the    teeth,  which    are  pointed  in    the    male  and    flat  in  the  female. 

Whether  this  difference    in  the  teeth  (which    may    be   likened  to    that    between   the  bills  of 

the  male  and   female  Huia-bird  of  New  Zealand)  indicates  a  corresponding  difference  in  food, 

or,  on  the  other  hand,  some  co-operation  between  the  sexes  in  procuring  it,  is  an  interesting 

question  that  our  present  slight  knowledge  of  the   habits  of  these  fishes  does  not  enable  us 

to  answer. 

Finally,  attention  must  be  drawn  to  the  remarkable  transformation  which  the  breast-fins 

and  tail  have  undergone.  The 
former  have  developed  into 
powerful  swimming-organs, 
locomotion  being  effected  by 
_  ,  their  undulatory  movements. 

t.,,.^^1  instead   of  by   similar  move- 

ments of  the  whole  body,  or 
by  side-to-side  motions  of 
the  tail,  as  in  other  fishes. 
Whilst  the  latter,  no  longer 
used  in  swimming,  has  either 
been  reduced  to  a  mere  vestige, 
as  in  the  HORNED  Ox-RAY, 
or  has  become  developed  into 
a  long  and  tapering  "  whip- 
lash," provided  with  a  poison- 
spine.  In  such  cases  the  long 
tail  is  used  to  encircle  prey, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  force 


Hull  i;  If.  Savilli-Kinl,  F.Z.S. 


[Milfird-en-Sta 


PAINTED    SKATE 

So  called  on  account  of  its  conspicuous  coloration 


the  victim  on  to  the  deadly 
spine. 


ROOK   V.     JOINTED   ANIMALS 


CHAPTER     I 
THE    CRAB   AND   SCORPION  GROUPS 

BY    W.    K.    KIRBV,    F.L.S. 

THIS  section  of  animals  is  often  called  a  "  sub-kingdom," 
and  differs  from  back-boned  animals  in  having  the  frame- 
work of  the  body  outside.     That  is,  instead  of  a  skeleton, 
Crabs,  Spiders,  Centipedes,  and   Insects  are  protected  either  by  a 
hard   shelly  casing,  or  by  a  tough  skin,  to  which  the  muscles  are 
attached ;  and  this  arrangement  renders  them  much  stronger  ami 
much  less  susceptible  to  injury,  in   proportion  to  their  size,  than 
vertebrate   animals.     They  have  cold   blood,  generally  of  a  white 
colour ;    and  their   bodies  and  limbs  are    usually  composed   of  a 
considerable  number  of  separate  joints. 

The  group  is  a  very  large  one,  and  it  is  probable  that  there 
arc  at  least  300,000  different 
kinds  of  insects  already  known, 
while  the  total  number  of  spe- 
cies now  existing  is  estimated 
by  different  entomologists  as 
from  two  to  ten  millions.  It 
is,  therefore,  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  every  word  of  our 
brief  account  of  the  Insects 
represents  from  ten  to  twenty 


fhtu  i.  E    Cwn/4 

BARNACLES 

A   tfttiet    ii'iti(k    ttmmonlj    attatkrt 
itulf  It    i/iift'    bottomi   aid 
virttkagt 


known  species  at  least.  The 
other  classes  of  the  group  are 
also  very  numerous.  Our  ac- 
count must  necessarily  be  very 
short ;  the  characters  of  the 

principal  classes  of  the  Jointed  Animals  are  referred  to  in 

their  places. 

CRABS,  LOBSTERS,  SHRIMPS,  WOOD-LICE,  BARNACLES.ETC. 

Jointed  animals  are  generally  provided  with  one  pair 
of  long  jointed  organs,  called  "antennae,"  a  natural 
word  derived  from  the  Latin,  in  which  language  antenna 
means  a  sail-yard.  They  are  often  called  "  feelers, "  and 
usually  fulfil  this  function  at  least;  but  they  are  al-o 
frequently  organs  of  snu-ll.  and  sometimes  probably  of 
hearing  and  other  senses.  One  peculiarity  <>f  the  CRAP. 
and  I.OIISIKK  group  is  that  they  are  generally  furni-hed 
with  two  pairs  instead  of  one  pair  of  these  organs. 

-7- 


...    K,,,*l'<    />Jr4 


A    PAIR 

Tkt    larger    ti-e-f 


OK    BARNACLES 

of  thn  fkotograftk  txkibiti  mcrt 
a!  detailt  tkan  tkt  t'jtt 


CRABS,    LOBSTERS,  SHRIMPS,  WOOD-LICE,    BARNACLES      273 


'*.'• 


[Regtnt't  Park 


.  P.  flWo,  F.Z..S.] 

ACORN -BARNACLE 

The  genera!  appearance  is  so  different  from  the  Stalked  Barnacle  that  it 
is  difficult  to  believe  the  tivo  belong  to  the  same  group 


They  are  nearly  all  aquatic  animals,  by  far 
the  larger  portion  being  marine,  and  they 
breathe  with  gills.  They  are  provided  with 
a  hard  calcareous  or  horny  covering.  The 
head  is  not  separated  from  the  trunk,  as  in 
insects ;  and  they  are  provided  with  a  num- 
ber of  jointed  organs,  usually  classified  as 
three  pairs  of  jaws,  three  pairs  of  foot-jaws, 
and  five  pairs  of  legs  in  the  more  typical 
families ;  but  in  the  smaller  and  more  aber- 
rant species  the  number  is  more  variable. 
In  their  early  stages  they  frequently  pass 
through  very  extraordinary  changes  of  form, 
but  after  assuming  their  adult  shape  they 
grow  by  casting  their  shells  at  intervals. 
We  will  now  notice  a  few  typical 

examples  of  the  different  groups   of  these  «"^,U««    ,  *~" I 

creatures. 

The  BKINE-SHRIMP  is  a  little  reddish 
creature  about  half  an  inch  long,  which 
prefers  the  concentrated  solution  of  brine-pits  to  sea-water.  It  has  eleven  pairs  of  legs,  and, 
notwithstanding  its  name,  the  front  portion  of  its  body  is  considerably  broader  and  flatter  in 
proportion  than  that  of  a  real  shrimp,  the  other  half  consisting  of  a  jointed  tail. 

BARNACLES  were  formerly  considered  to  be  shell-fish,  but  are  now  usually  classed  with  the 
crabs  and  lobsters,  because,  when  they  are  young,  they  appear  as  freely  swimming  creatures, 
with  one  eye,  two  antennae,  and  six  pairs  of  jointed  limbs.  When  they  grow  larger,  they  fix 
themselves  to  a  rock  or  some  other  object  by  the  head,  and  develop  a  shell,  usually  composed 
of  several  pieces.  The  commonest  is  the  ACORN-BARNACLE,  the  white  shell  of  which,  measur- 
ing rather  less  than  an  inch  across,  swarms  on  rocks  at  the  seaside.  It  is  shaped  like  a  limpet, 
but  open  at  the  top.  The  GOOSE-BARXACLES  hang  down  by  a  stalk,  and  their  jointed  shells 
more  resemble  those  of  a  mussel  than  that  of  a  limpet,  though  they  are  composed  of  several 
pieces.  Various  species  similar  to  both  those  mentioned  are  found  on  piers,  rocks,  the  bottoms 
of  ships,  and  even  sometimes  on  the  skin  of  whales. 

In  dark  cellars  in  the  country,  under  loose  bark,  or  under  pieces  of  wood  which  have  been 

left  in  the  fields,  we  often  see  creeping  about  brown  creatures 
about  half  an  inch  long,  with  jointed  bodies  and  antenna;,  and 
short  jointed  legs.  They  are  called  WOOD-LICE,  and  several 
species  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball  when  alarmed.  These 
creatures  feed  chiefly  on  decaying  vegetable  substances;  and 
there  is  a  larger  marine  species  much  like  them,  which  is  common 
in  holes  and  crannies  in  the  rocks  on  the  seashore. 

There  are  other  curious  creatures,  called  WHALE-LICE  and 
FlSII-LlCE,  which  are  parasitic  in  their  habits.  Some  of  these 
look  like  spiders,  and  one  or  two  have  enormously  long  legs; 
but  others  are  of  strange  and  almost  indescribable  forms,  and 
sometimes  without  legs  at  all.  One  species,  found  on  the  sprat, 
has  two  long  appendages  at  the  end  of  its  body  not  unlike  a 
pair  of  compasses. 

SHRIMPS  and  PRAWNS  are  red  when  cooked,  but  when  alive 
arc    very  pretty  semi-transparent  objects,   which    may   be    seen 
ai        swimming  about  through  the  glass  of  aquariums  placed  against 
the  wall.     Prawns  are  larger  than  shrimps,  and  have  a  strong 


PrMl  bj  W.   P.  Dar.de,  f.'/..S. 
Kigtnl'l  Park 


WOOD-LOUSE 

land   representative    of  a    m 
marine  group 


274       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


if.  r. 


[Rtftni'i  Ptrt 


serrated  spine  in  front  of  the  head.  Shrimps  and 
prawns,  of  which  several  kinds  are  found  off  the 
Hritish  coasts,  generally  prefer  shallow  water,  with 
a  sandy  bottom.  In  most  of  these  the  first  two 
pairs  of  feet  are  divided  to  form  a  pair  of  pincers 
at  the  extremity;  but  in  such  small  creatures  this 
is  easily  overlooked,  unless  special  attention  is 
directed  to  it.  It  is  different  with  the  LOBSTERS 
and  CRAYFISH,  which  much  resemble  shrimps  in 
form,  but  are  very  much  larger,  and  armed  with  a 
pair  of  very  large  pincer-like  claws,  in  addition  to 
the  other  legs.  Lobsters  live  in  the  sea,  in  holes 
in  the  rocks,  into  which  they  dart  backwards,  and 
there  protect  themselves  with  only  the  head  and 
claws  projecting  at  the  opening,  ready  to  face  any 
intruder.  Crayfish,  which  are  smaller,  live  in  holes 
in  the  banks  6f  brooks  and  rivers.  There  are  many 
species,  some  of  large  size  and  bright  colours.  The 
COMMON  LOIIMKR  is  black  when  living,  but  other 
species  arc  red,  blue,  or  variegated. 

Sometimes,  if  we  pick  up  a  whelk-shell  on  the 
beach,  we  shall  find  it  inhabited,  not  by  a  mollusc, 
but  by  a  crab,  with  its  legs  and  claws  wedged 
together,  so  as  to  fill  the  aperture  completely  - 
one  claw,  much  larger  than  the  other,  resting  in 
front;  and  if  we  pull  it  out,  we  shall  find  that, 
though  the  front  of  its  body  and  the  legs  and  claws 

are  hard,  like  those  of  an  ordinary  crab,  it  has  a  long,  soft,  fleshy  tail,  absolutely  defenceless 

and  unprotected.     Crabs  belonging  to  this  curious  section  are  called  HKRMIT-CRABS,  and  protect 

themselves  by  taking  possession  of  shells  which  they  have  either  found  empty  or  appropriated 

by  the  easy  and  economical  process  of  devouring  the  owners.     The  few  species  found  on  the 

British  coasts  are  all  small,  and   more  frequently  noticed  in  whelk-shells  than  in  a  in  •  otlu  -rs : 

but  tropical  species  attain  to 

a  considerable  size,  and  may  S~  ^*^^*^~ 

sometimes  be  found  in  shells 

measuring  3  or  4  inches  across 

at  the  opening. 

Crabs   are  distinguished 

from   the   lobsters    by    their 

compact  form,  and  by  having 

the  short  tail  turned  in  under 

the  body.     There  are  a  great 

number   of  species,  differing 

much    in     size,    shape,    and 

appearance.     One  of  the  best 

known    in     England    is    the 

large  Kin  Bl.K  C  K  A  It,  which  may 

often  be  seen  in  fishmongers' 

shops,  and,  unlike  the  lobster. 

docs    not    change    much    in 

colour  when   boiled.      Every 

visitor   to   the   seaside    must 


,  r. -/..it.] 
SHRIMP 

4  iftcti  mtiet  flajt  an  important  fart  in  tkt  foad-tupfly 
of  London 


flint  '• 


FRESH- WATER   CRAB 

In  ginlral  afftarand  very  umi/ar  it  ike  eomman  i 


fhttt  by  If.  Savillt-Ktnl,  F.Z.S.~\ 


SPIDER-CRAB 

An  active  sea-scavenger 


Phelo  ky  W.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.Z.Z.] 


[Milftrd-tn-Sia 


BLUE    CRAB 

Much  esteemed  for  the  table 
275 


276    THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


have  seen  numbers  of  the  little  greenish  SHORE-CRAHS,  running  about  on  the  sand,  or  over 
seaweed-covered  rocks,  at  low  tide.  These  small  crabs  are  harmless,  but  large  kinds  are  able 
to  give  a  very  severe  pinch.  It  is  related  that  when  the  great  chemist  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
was  a  boy  he  used  to  maintain  that  pain  was  no  evil,  until  a  large  crab  gripped  his  toe  one 
day  when  he  was  bathing,  after  which  he  changed  his  opinion. 

Some  crabs  are  smooth  and  shining,  but  others  are  covered  with  bosses,  excrescences,  and 
spines,  which  give  them  a  very  formidable  appearance,  and  must  be  a  useful  protection  against 
any  enemies  to  whose  attacks  they  are  exposed.  In  many  species  one  of  the  two  great  claws 
is  always  much  larger  than  the  other.  Some  have  round  bodies,  others  are  oval  or  nearly 
square ;  some  have  short  legs,  and  others  very  long  ones.  The  species  differ  much  in  their 
habits;  and  in  tropical  countries  there  are  land-crabs  which  live  entirely  on  shore,  and  others 
which  are  amphibious,  and  climb  cocoanut-trees  to  get  at  the  nuts.  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  crabs  are  carnivorous  and  marine,  and  play  the  part  of  sea-scavengers. 

The  KlNG-CRABS  differ  very  much  from  any  now  living  in  the  British  seas,  but 
are  generally  considered  to  be  allied  to  the  Trilobites,  an  extinct 


MMI  t,  If.  fivtU,-K,,t,  F.Z.S. 

FIGHTING    CRABS 

Ttt  m*lt,  tre  remarkable  for  having  cut  large  ut'let  tla-.i<,  tke  t,lhir   tang  rudimentarf  (tke  femalei 
ftutu  fan  imatl  claw  taly).       Tke  tyei  alto  art  uated  at  tke  end  of  long  Haiti 

tion,"    since    they    are    found    only    on    the    coasts    of  the 
Southern  United  States  and  West  Indies. 


family  which  appears  to 
~1  have  been  extremely 
numerous  in  very  ancient 
seas.  King-crabs  are  2 
jy  or  3  feet  long  from  the 
fn  mt  of  the  body  to  the 
end  of  the  tail.  The 
front  part  of  the  body 
is  entirely  covered  by  a 
curved  oval  shield,  while 
the  hinder  part  of  the 
body  is  much  narrower, 
and  armed  at  the  side- 
\vith  strong  teeth  din 
backwards,  and  also  with 
a  long  and  strong  spear, 
something  like  that  of 
a  sword-fish  on  a  small 
scale,  as  long  as  the  rest 
of  the  body.  The  few 
species  known  exhibit  an 
instance  of  what  is  called 
"  discontinuous  distribu- 
Moluccas,  Mast  Indies,  and  the 


SCORPIONS,  SPIDERS,  AND   Mi  ITS 

These  creatures  form  a  peculiar  group  in  which  there  are  only  two  principal  divisions  of 
the  body,  the  head  and  thorax  being  fused  into  one  mass,  and  the  abdomen  forming  a  separate 
division.  In  the  Mites,  however,  the  body  forms  a  single  round  or  oval  m.i^s.  ,-ven  the  divi-ion 
between  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen  having  disappeared.  The  members  of  the  group  have 
no  antennae,  but  two  pairs  of  jaws  and  a  pair  of  palpi,  frequently  very  long,  and  armed  with 
a  pincer-like  arrangement  at  the  end,  in  which  case  they  are  railed  "  foot  jaw-."  Kxcept  in 
some  of  the  mites,  which  have  only  four  or  six,  all  the  group  have  eight  legs.  They  p 
through  no  metamorphosis,  but  moult  several  times  after  quitting  the  egg  before  attaining 
their  full  growth.  They  have  frequently  several  pairs  of  simple  eyes,  but  no  compound  eyes 
like  the  large  pair  on  the  head  of  most  insects. 

In  the  ScORl'lnxs.  of  which  then  nsidcrable  variety  in  different  parts  of  the   world. 


SCORPIONS,    SPIDERS,    AND    MITES 


277 


PlMc  bj  HigUij 


EGYPTIAN    SCORPION 

A  fairly  targe  and  venomous  representative  of  the  fro 


the    united  head  and 

thorax  are  compara- 
tively short ;  but  the 

abdomen  is  very  long, 

and    divided    into    a 

broad  half,  consisting 

of    seven     segments, 

and  a  narrow  tail  of 

five     very      movable 

segments,    besides    a 

sharp,  curved  sting  at 

the  extremity.    There 

are  from  three  to  six 

pairs   of  eyes  on  the 

head  and  thorax,  and 

in  front   of  the  body 

projects  a  pair  of  very 

large     pincer-bearing 

foot-jaws.     Scorpions 

are    generally    of    a 

yellowish      or     black 

colour ;  and  thelargest 

black  scorpions  of  Africa  and  India  sometimes  measure  as  much  as  9  inches  in  length.    They  are 

nocturnal  creatures,  hiding  under  stones,  or  in  holes  in  the  ground,  or  in  crevices  in  walls  during 

the  day.    They  kill  the  insects  and  other  small  animals  on  which  they  feed  with  their  stings,  the 

sting  of  one  of  the  large  black  scorpions,  like  that  of  the  large  tropical  centipedes,  being  as  painful 

and  dangerous  as  that  of  a  snake.     There  arc  a  few  small  and  comparatively  harmless  species 

found  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  most  of  the  scorpions  inhabit  warmer  countries. 
The  JOINTED  SPIDERS  are  creatures  i  or  2  inches  long,  remarkable  for  having  the  head  and  the 

segments  of  the  thorax 
separated  from  each  other, 
so  as  to  form  distinct  di- 
visions of  the  body.  They 
have  rather  long  and  very 
hairy  legs,  and  only  one 
pair  of  well-developed 
eyes,  another  pair  being 
rudimentary.  Some 
species  are  diurnal  and 
others  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  They  feed  on  in- 
sects, and  sometimes  on 
small  birds,  etc.,  and  can 
inflict  a  very  painful  bite. 
They  are  found  in  South- 
eastern Europe,  Africa, 
Southern  Asia,  and  from 
K__.,  ,  -  ~__  the  Southern  States  of 

£  ' •••^'-'^ir^  North  America  south   to 


fhae  I,  Higkln 


EGYPTIAN    SCORPION 

Shows  the  sting  uplifted  for  attack 


Chili  and  Argentina. 

The     FALSE     SCORP- 

IONS,OrBOOK-SCORPIONS, 


278     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


f*./.  *.  Hitti:,, 

TREE   TRAP-DOOR    SPIDER    OF    BRAZIL 

Trap-Jeer  ipiJtn  an  plentiful  in  same  pant  of  Europe 


are   small  animals  resembling  scorpions  in   shape,   but   with  no  sting,  and  the  abdomen  not 

narrowed  into  a  tail.     They  are  sometimes  found  in  houses  among  dusty  old  books,    as  well 

as  out  of  doors  among  moss,  or  under 
stones  or  bark.  Sometimes  they  cling  to 
the  legs  of  flies ;  they  are  believed  to  feed 
on  mites  and  other  small  creatures,  but  not 
to  injure  the  flies,  only  employing  them  as 
a  convenient  method  of  being  conveyed  from 
one  place  to  another. 

The  WHIP-SCORPIONS  are  not  unlike 
scorpions,  and  have  large  claws,  but  the  front 
legs  are  very  long,  slender,  and  whip-like,  and 
there  is  either  no  tail,  or  else  a  long,  slender, 
whip-like  one  without  a  sting.  They  arc- 
inhabitants  of  warm  countries,  and,  rightly 
or  wrongly,  are  reputed  to  be  venomous. 
Different  species  measure  from  I  inch  to  4 
or  5  inches  in  length. 

The  curious  HARVEST-MEN  have  two 
eyes,  a  small,  compact,  oval  body,  large 
pincers,  and  very  long,  slender  legs,  longer 
and  more  slender  in  proportion  to  their  si/.e 
than  those  of  crane-flies,  and  equally  liable 
to  be  broken  oft",  if  the  owner  is  roughly 

handled.     They  feed  on  plant-lice  and  other  small  insects. 

We  now  come  to  the  large  and  important  group  of  Sl'lDKRs,  which  more  frequently  attract 

attention  in  England  than  any  others  of  the  group.      The    abdomen  is    not    usually    divided 

into  distinct  segments,  and  is  connected  with 

the    thorax    by  a  short  stalk.      Spiders  have 

strong   poisonous  jaws,  which  make  some  of 

the  larger  species  formidable  even  to  man,  and 

several  pairs  of  eyes ;  while  many  possess  an 

apparatus  for  spinning    a    strong  silken  web, 

in  which  they  entangle  their  prey,  consisting 

chiefly  of  flies  and  other  winged  insects. 

The   largest   known    spiders    are    usually 

placed  first  in  the  series.      These  are  the  great 

BIRD-CATCHING  SPIDERS  of  South  America, 

some   of  which    have  bodies    3    inches   long, 

and  strong,  hairy  legs.     These  large  spiders 

have   now   been  proved   not  only  to  feed  on 

insects,   but   occasionally   on    humming-birds, 

and  even  sometimes  on  larger  birds,  such  as 

finches. 

The  TRAP-DOOR  SPIDERS  are  allied,  but 

smaller,  perhaps  averaging  about  an  inch   in 

length.     They  construct  a  silken  gallery  in  the 

ground,   with  a  round  door,  which  they  shut 

behind  them  when  they  enter.     There  is  only 

one  species  in  England,  which  does  not  form 

a  trap-door,  but  a  silken  tube.     If  any  insect  settles  on  it,  the  spider  clutches  it  from  within, 

tears  a  hole  in  the  tube,  drags  its  prey  inside,  and  then  repairs  the  rent. 


MOUSE-SPIDER 

Exkibiti  the  four  pair i  of  legt  <haract(rinic  of  the  group 


SCORPIONS,    SPIDERS,    AND    MITES 


279 


Different  spiders  have  many  curious  methods  of  capturing  their  insect-prey.  Some  catch 
insects  by  running  after  them,  and  others  by  leaping  on  them,  while  those  which  spin  webs 
are  also  very  dissimilar  in  their  habits  and  in  their  abodes.  The  brown  HOUSE-SPIDERS  spin 
webs  in  any  room  left  undisturbed  long  enough  to  allow  them  to  construct  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  ORB-SPINNERS,  or  GARDEN-SPIDERS,  construct  elaborate  webs  out  of  doors.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  these  is  the  DIADEM-SPIDER,  which  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  and  of  a 
green  or  reddish  colour,  with  a  white  cross  bordered  with  black  on  the  back.  The  web  is  very 
regularly  constructed,  the  principal  threads  radiating  in  all  directions  from  a  common  centre, 
where  the  spider  generally  sits  in  fine  weather,  ready  to  rush  out  upon  any  insect  which  may 
become  entangled  in  the  web. 

The  GOSSAMER-SPIDERS  spin  light  webs,  which  are  easily  carried  up  into  the  air,  and  upon 
which  the  spiders  are  borne  from  one  place  to  another.  Sometimes  on  an  autumn  morning 
the  air  may  be  seen  to  be  full  of  these  floating  webs,  which  also  cover  the  grass  and  bushes 
where  they  have  settled.  The  WATER-SPIDERS,  again,  construct  a  habitation  of  water-tight 
silk  under  water,  like  a  diving-bell,  and  inflate  it  by  carrying  down  bubbles  of  air  from  the 
surface,  entangled  in  the  hairs  of  the  body. 

The  nesting-habits  of  many  spiders  are  very  curious.  The  eggs  are  usually  laid  in  a 
silken  case,  and  the  RUNNING-SPIDERS  may  often  be  seen  with  the  egg-cases  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  body,  as  in  the  female  cockroach. 

The  males  of  many  spiders  are  much  smaller  than  the  females,  and  are  very  liable  t'v 
be  devoured  by  their  partners. 

Among  the  most  curious  of  the  group  are  the  SPINY  SPIDERS,  strange,  horny,  semicircula 


GARDEN-SPIDER    IN    WEB 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  structure  of  the  iveb 


28o       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


' 


creatures,  studded  with  strong  spines.     They  are  allied  to  the  Garden-spiders,  but  confined  to 
the  tropics. 

The  SPOTTED  SPIDER  is  a  very  beautiful  species,  often  seen  among  cases  of  mixed  insects,  etc., 
sent  from  India.  It  is  black,  with  brown  abdomen  and  numerous  yellow  spots,  and  about  i.l  inch 
long;  the  body  is  much  longer  than  broad,  and  the  legs  are  about  twice  as  long  as  the  body. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  turn  spider-silk  to  commercial  purposes,  but  the  great 
difficulty  is  that  spiders  are  so  voracious  and  cannibalistic  in  their  propensities  that  they 
cannot  be  kept  in  captivity,  for  they  will  kill  and  eat  each  other  as  long  as  there  are  any 
left,  to  the  very  last  spider.  The  silk  of  some  of  the  large  tropical  spiders  is  someti: 
strong  enough  to  cause  a  man  much  annoyance  when  riding  through  the  woods,  striking  up 
against  his  face,  and  sometimes  knocking  off  his  hat. 

The  last  section  includes  the  MlTES  and  TICKS,  most  of  which  are  small  or  microscopic. 

The  whole  body  forms  one 
round  or  oval  mass,  with 
scattered  hairs,  and  eight 
legs,  though  most  mites 
have  only  six  legs  when 
young,  while  the  I'I.AN  r- 
MITES  have  only  four.  The 
largest  mites  are  th»-e 
called  TICKS.  There  are 
one  or  two  small  species 
which  are  sometimes  suf- 
ficiently troublesome;  but 
in  many  warm  countries. 
they  are  a  far  more  serious 
nuisance,  lurking  on  tin- 
herbage,  and  fixing  their 
proboscis  in  the  skin  of 
any  passing  man  or  ani- 
mal, and  retaining  their 
hold  till  they  are  gorged 
with  blood,  and  allow 
themselves  to  drop  off  by 
their  own  weight. 

Among     the     smaller 
mites     some     species     are 

parasitic  on  warm-blooded  animals,  causing  itch,  mange,  and  other  diseases;  while  many  ir. 
insects,  especially  humble-bees  and  dung-beetles.  These  are  of  considerable  si/e  for  mites;  ami 
there  are  other  bright  scarlet  species  which  are  sometimes  found  on  saw-Hies,  dragon-flies,  etc. 
Many  feed  on  decaying  animal  or  vegetable-matter,  such  as  the  CHEESE-MITE  and  the  Sr<.  \K-MI  ]  1. 
the  former  being  a  very  familiar  and  interesting  microscopic  object;  and  others,  again,  are  very 
destructive  to  plants,  like  the  small  scarlet  mite  known  in  greenhouses  as  the  Kr.n  Spun 

Among  the  plant-feeding  mites  are  the  four-legged  GAU.-.MITKS,  which  produce  g.ilK  or 
other  excrescences  on  the  plants  which  they  infest. 

Mites  are  probably  almost  as  varied  in  their  forms  and  habits  and  as  interesting  objects  of 
study  as  insects  or  spiders ;  but  the  group  is  somewhat  neglected  by  natunlists,  owing  to  the 
small  size  of  most  of  the  species,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of  collecting  and  preserving  them. 

CEMiiThi  s    \\i>  Mii.i.m-:ni  9 

These  are  creatures  with  long,  worm-like  bodies,  oimp.^.-d  of  a  number  of  rings  or  segments. 
each  provided  with  one  or  two  pairs  of  legs.  They  have  one  pair  of  antenna;,  like  insects,  but 


HUH 


SPANISH    TARANTULA 


&  tilled  teiauie  tie  kite  of  an  Italian  ifeiiet  -utai  luppaud  n  f  reduce  a  fit  cf  metanckolia,  vikick 
fcn/J  oif/jr  be  cured  by  ike  tune  ewwn  at  the  '*  tarentella  " 


CENTIPEDES    AND    MILLIPEDES 


281 


they  pass  through  no  metamorphoses,  nor  do  they  moult.  Instead  of  this,  they  begin  their 
existence,  on  quitting  the  egg,  without  legs,  or  with  only  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  continue  to 
add  to  the  number  of  their  segments  and  legs  until  they  have  attained  their  full  growth. 
They  are  called  Centipedes,  or  Hundred-legs,  and  Millipedes,  or  Thousand-legs  ;  but  in  the 
majority  of  species  the  number  of  legs  is  considerably  below  100,  though  in  some  few  it  may 
exceed  300. 

The  CENTIPEDES  have  only  one  pair  of  legs  attached  to  each  segment  of  the  body,  and 
are  carnivorous,  being  armed  with  a  pair  of  strong  mandibles,  which  are  perforated  poison- 
fangs.  The  common  species  arc  all  small  and  harmless,  but  the  bite  of  the  large  tropical 
centipedes  is  more  painful  and  almost  as  dangerous  as  that  of  a  snake.  Centipedes  are  long, 
broad,  flattened  creatures,  with  about  twenty-one  pairs  of  legs,  and  sometimes  measure  more 
than  a  foot  in  length.  A  reddish  centipede,  belonging  to  an  allied  family,  is  common  in 
England  under  stones  and  in  loose  mould.  It  has  long  antennas  and  fifteen  pairs  of  legs, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  worms.  It  is  about  an  inch  long. 


e  4r  If    P.  Dartdt,  F.Z.S. 


GIANT    CENTIPEDE 

Most  centipedes  have  considerably  feiccr  than  a  hundred  tegs 


The  ELECTRIC  CENTIPEDES  are  much  longer  and  more  slender  than  the  others  in  proportion 
to  their  length,  with  rather  short  antennae,  and  short  and  very  numerous  legs.  They  are  of 
a  white  or  yellow  colour,  and  2  or  3  inches  long.  All  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and 
feed  on  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and  are  fond  of  ripe  fruit.  They  emit  a  pale 
phosphorescence,  visible  in  the  dark  along  the  track  over  which  they  have  crawled. 

MILLIPEDES  are  not  venomous,  and  feed  chiefly  on  soft  vegetable  matter.  Except  the  first 
three  behind  the  head,  which  are  provided  with  only  one  pair  each,  every  segment  bears  two 
pairs  instead  of  one  pair  of  legs.  The  COMMON  SNAKE-MILLIPEDE  is  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  long,  and  is  brown,  with  yellow  rings  and  ninety-nine  pairs  of  short  white  legs.  It  is 
nearly  as  destructive  as  the  Wire-worms,  which  it  resembles  in  its  habits,  and  may  often  be 
seen  clinging  to  a  partly  eaten  potato.  Millipedes  are  able  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a 
spiral.  Many  foreign  kinds  grow  to  a  much  larger  size,  measuring  nearly  a  foot  in  length. 
They  are  more  frequently  sent  to  Europe  from  foreign  countries  than  centipedes,  probably 
because  they  are  sluggish,  harmless  creatures  which  do  not  bite. 

The  members  of  one  family  of  millipedes,  called  PILL-MILLIPEDES,  are  so  similar  to  wood-lice 


282     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

in  shape  and  appearance  that  they  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  them,  and  they  exhibit 
the  same  habit  of  rolling  themselves  up  into 
a  ball. 

A  curious  genus,  generally  placed  in  a 
distinct  class  by  itself,  includes  a  few  species 
which  may  be  called  SI.IMV  Miu.ii'Ki'ix 
The  species  are  found  in  widely  separated 
parts  of  the  world,  chiefly  in  the  most  southern 
regions,  such  as  South  America,  South  Africa, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  though  one  or 
two  are  known  from  Ceylon  and  the  \\Y>t 
Indies.  They  resemble  slimy  caterpillars,  with 
conspicuous  antennae,  and  from  thirteen  to 
forty  pairs  of  legs.  The  body  is  not  dis- 
tinctly divided  into  segments,  and  it  exudes 
a  very  viscous  slime,  which  acts  like  bird-lime 
in  capturing  the  small  insects  which  form  at 
least  a  part  of  the  food  of  these  creatures,  but 
which  will  not  adhere  to  their  own  bodies. 
These  creatures  are  found  among  decaying 
vegetable  matter. 

ECONOMIC  STATUS  OF  INSECTS 

r>»<.  tr  ir.  r.  D*.J,,  F.Z.S.]  IK./.»;'I  r*rt  A.  careful  inquiry  into  the  injurious  and 

GIANT    MILLIPEDE  ^e  Deneficent  work  of  insects  leaves  us  in 

doubt  as  to  whether  the  sum  total  of  one  over- 

Skewi  tki  abtenct  of  itfit'f.  ii'kicfi  diitinruitket  tttcse  creature*  from  the       .      . 

pnJatory  atriftJe,  balances    the   other   or   not.      We    find  that 

insects  are    injurious    in    many    ways:     As 

destroyers  of  valuable  plants;  as  destroyers  of  stored  food,  clothing,  dwellings,  books,  etc.; 
injuring  useful  animals,  annoying  man,  and  carrying  disease.  And  there  are  many  ways  in 
which  insects  are  a  benefit :  As  destroyers  of  injurious  insects ;  as  destroyers  of  noxious  plants  ; 
as  pollenisers  of  plants;'  as  scavengers;  as  makers  of  soil;  and  as  food  (for  man  and  beast), 
clothing,  and  use  in  the  arts. 

Some  idea  of  the  destructiveness  of  an  insect  pest  can  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  the 
State  of  Massachusetts  has  expended  over  a  million  dollars  in  a  not  particularly  successtV.l 
attempt  to  extirpate  the  Gypsy  moth  in  a  few  of  its  Kastern  counties.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  may  balance  to  the  insect's  account  the  36,000,000  pounds  which  the  industrioifs  silkworm 
produced  last  year. 


CHAPTER    II 
INSECTS 

INSECTS  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  jointed  animals  by  many  salient  characters. 
They  have  one  pair  of  antennae,  two  large  compound  eyes,  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  facets,  and  sometimes  one,  two,  or  three  simple  eyes  placed  on  the  crown  or  front  of 
the  head.  In  its  adult  condition  an  insect  is  composed  of  three  different  parts,  which  can 
be  most  readily  noticed  in  a  wasp.  There  is  the  head,  with  the  antenna;  and  mouth-parts ; 
the  thorax,  to  which  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings  are  attached  above,  and  three  pairs  of  legs 
below ;  and  the  abdomen.  Insects  breathe  through  openings,  called  "  stigmata,"  in  the  sides  of 
the  thorax  and  abdomen.  They  never  possess  more  than  six  legs  in  the  perfect  state,  the 
abdominal  legs  present  in  caterpillars,  etc.,  disappearing  in  the  adult  condition.  They  generally 
pass  through  what  is  called  a  "  metamorphosis,"  -  -  four  different  stages  of  life,  called  respectively 
egg;  larva  or  caterpillar;  pupa,  nymph,  or  chrysalis ;  and  imago,  or  perfect  insect. 

Insects  are  divided  into  several  large  sections,  of  which  the  following  seven  are  the  most 
important,  and  many  entomologists  prefer  to  include  all  insects  under  them :  - 

Sheath-winged  Insects,  or  Beetles ;  Straight-winged  Insects,  or  Earwigs,  Cockroaches, 
Soothsayers,  Stick-insects,  Crickets,  Grasshoppers,  and  Locusts ;  Nerve-winged  or  Lace-winged 
Insects,  or  Dragon-flies  and  their  relatives;  Stinging  Four-winged  Insects,  or  Ants,  Bees  and 
Wasps,  and  their  allies ;  Scale-winged  Insects,  or  Butterflies  and  Moths ;  Half-winged  Insects, 
or  Bugs  and  Frog-hoppers;  Two-winged  Insects,  or  Flies. 

We  proceed  to  notice  these  orders  separately. 


SHEATH-WINGED   INSECTS,    OR    BEETLES 

BY    THE    REV.    THEODORE    WOOD,   F.E.S. 

BEETLES  are  distinguished  from  most  other  insects  by  the  fact  that  the  front  wings  are 
not  employed  in  flight,  but  are  modified  into  horney  sheaths,  which  cover  and  protect  the 
lower  pair  while  not  in  use.  This  arrangement,  however,  is  also  found  in  the  Earwigs  as  well 
as  in  the  so-called  "  Black-beetle"  and  its  allies,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  wing-cases  of 
beetles  lie  evenly  side  by  side  together  when  the  wings  are  folded,  while  the  folding  of  the  wings 


themselves  is  transverse  as  well  as 
is  very  great,  upwards  of  100,000 
which  about  3,400  have  been  taken 

The  order  is  again  divided  into 
which  stand  the  predacious  beetles 
English  TIGER-BEETLE  is  a  familiar 
peaty  heaths,  and  may  be  known 
cases,  marked  with  white  spots,  and 
Thelegsare  coppery.  Itflieswithgreat 
to  wing  as  readily  as  a  blue-bottle  fly, 

Another  representative  of  the 
with  coppery  reflections.  It  is  only 
but  abounds  in  France  and  Germany, 
of  the  famous  Processionary  Moth, 
checking  their  ravages  in  the  great 

Familiar  to  almost  all  is  the 
in  gardens,  and  easily  recognisable 


longitudinal. 


Ptittt  fy  If.  P.  Dand,, 
F.Z.S,,Rtgml'i  Part 

TIGER-BEETLE 

The  colouring  of  this  insect 

is   bright  green   'with 

'white  markings  and 

coppery  legs 

283 


The  number  of  species 
having  already  been  described,  of 
in  the  British  Islands, 
several  smaller  groups,  first  among 
of  the  land.  Of  these  the  common 
example.  It  is  found  on  sandy  and 
at  once  by  its  bright  green  wing- 
the  metallic  blue  of  the  abdomen, 
swiftness  in  the  hot  sunshine,  taking 
and  feeds  entirely  upon  other  insects, 
group  is  rich  golden  green  in  colour, 
an  occasional  visitor  to  Britain, 
where  it  feeds  upon  the  caterpillars 
and  is  largely  instrumental  in 
oak  forests. 

PURPLE  GROUND-BEETLE, so  plentiful 

by  the    violet  margin   to    the  black 


284     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


7  W.  F.  D 

Keftnt'i 


*  f.X.S. 


GROUND-BEETLE 

Tme  beetlet  of  tJkit  group  are  generally  of 

a  black  or  bronzy  colour t  tome  tpeciet 

being  beautifully  metallic 


wing-cases.  It  pours  out  an  evil-smelling  liquid  from  the  end 
of  the  body  when  handled. 

The  curious  red-and-blue  BOMBARDIER,  which,  when  interfered 
with,  discharges  a  little  puff  of  bluish-white  smoke  from  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen,  accompanied  by  a  distinct  report,  is  also  a  member 
of  this  group.  It  is  found  under  stones  on  river-banks,  and  also 
on  the  coast. 

Next  come  the  predacious  beetles  of  the  water,  of  which  we 
have  a  well-known  British  representative  in  the  GREAT  BRC>\\\ 
WATER-HEETI.K.  This  insect,  which  is  plentiful  in  weedy  ponds, 
swims  by  means  of  its  hind  limbs,  which  are  modified  into  broad, 
flat  oars,  with  a  mechanical  arrangement  for  "  feathering"  as  they 
are  drawn  back  after  making  each  stroke.  It  flies  by  night,  often 
traveling  for  a  long  distance  from  one  pond  to  another,  and 
regains  the  water  by  suddenly  folding  its  wings  and  allowing 
itself  to  fall  from  a  height.  In 
the  female  insect  the  wing-cases  are 
grooved  for  about  two-thirds  of  their 
length. 

This    beetle  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  still    larger  BLACK 

WATER-BEETLE,  which  belongs  to  another  group.     This  fine  insect, 

which  is  not  predacious  in  the  perfect  state,  is  locally  plentiful 

in  ditches,  and   is  in   great   request  as  an  inmate  of  the   fresh- 
water aquarium.     The  hind  limbs  are  not  modified  for  swimming 

purposes. 

Next  in  order  come   the  COCKTAILS,  so   called  from  their 

curious  habit  of  turning  up  the  end  of  the  body  when  alarmed. 

To  this  group  belong  most  of  the  tiny  "  flies"  which  cause  such 

severe  pain   when    they   find   their   way   into   the   eyes.      Some 

species,  however,  attain  to  a   considerable  size,  the   well-known 

DKVII.'S    COACH-HORSE    being  fully  an  inch  in  length.     The  great 

f  ,    majority     are     scavengers,      being 

found  in  carrion,  manure,  and  de- 
caying vegetable  matter.  A  few, 
however,  are  lodgers  in  the  nests 
of  ants,  by  whom  they  appear  to 
be  regarded  as  pets  and  treated  with  the  utmost  kindness. 

The  next  group  includes  the  curious  inserts  popularly 
known  asBURYl\<;-i:i  I  I  i.r.s,  which  inter  the  bodies  of  small  animals 
in  the  ground,  scooping  out  the  earth  from  underneath  them  by 
means  of  their  broad  and  powerful  heads,  and  shovelling  it  back 
when  the  carcases  have  sunk  to  a  sufficient  depth.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  carrion  thus  buried.  Most  of  these  beetles  are 
distinguished  by  broad  blotches  or  bars  of  orange  on  the  wing- 
cases,  but  one  common  Bnti>h  species  is  entirely  black. 

Allied    to    thes,-,   and    very   similar   in   habits,    are    the    FLAT 

BURYING-BBI  ii  i  3,  of  which  there  are  about  a  dozen  British  species. 

In  the  best  known  of  these  the  thorax  is  dull  red  in  colour,  and 
the  black  wing-cases  are  curiously  wrinkled.  Another  species  is 
reddish  yellow  in  colour,  with  two  round  black  spots  on  each 
wing-case.  It  is  found  on  oak-trees,  and  feeds  upon  caterpillars. 


HIM  */  IT.  P.  DanJi,  T.7..S. 
Ay.rnr''    I'arl 

GREAT    BROWN 

WATER-BEETLE  (MALE) 

A   large   oli-ve'brtnvn    tpefiei,    about  an 

inct  in  length,  ar.J  r,ear!\  half  as 

br(.ad.      The  wing-{aiei  of  the 

female  are  grooved 


fku,  „,  W.  f.  D*»4,,  F.Z.I. 
Kfgtnt'i  fjrt 

BLACK    WATER-BEETLE 

A  iJtininf   blttk  ifecrtl,  longer,  narrower, 
irt  tone*  than  ilit  Cireji 
Brnen   •  ' 


lining 
and  m 


SHEATH-WINGED    INSECTS 


The  LEAF-HORNED  BEETLES  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  terminal  joints  of 
the  antennae  lie  one  upon  another  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  In  many  cases  they  can  be 
expanded  at  will  into  a  broad  fan-like  club.  The  well-known  STAG-BEETLE  is  a  representa- 
tive of  this  group.  It  is  a  somewhat  local  species,  being  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  the 
country,  and  entirely  unknown  in  others.  The  grub  lives  for  several  years  in  the  trunks  of 
elm-trees,  feeding  upon  the  solid  wood.  When  fully  grown,  it  buries  itself  in  the  earth,  and 
constructs  a  large  cocoon,  in  which  it  passes  the  chrysalis  stage  of  its  existence.  The  perfect 
beetle  emerges  in  November,  but  remains  within  the  cocoon  until  the  following  June.  In  the 
female  the  jaws  are  very  much  smaller  than  in  the  male,  but  are  nevertheless  more  formidable 
as  weapons.  The  insect  may  often  be  seen  flying  on  warm  summer  evenings. 

A  still  larger  insect  belonging  to  the  same  group  is  the  HERCULES  BEETLE,  found  in  the 
West  Indies  and  tropical  America,  a  male  of  average  size  being  nearly  5  inches  in  length. 
In  this  beetle  the  thorax  is  prolonged  into  a  horn,  which  is  curved  downwards,  while  the 
head  is  produced  into  a  similar  horn  curved  upwards,  so  that  the  two  look  like  a  pair  of 
enormous  jaws.  It  has  been  stated  that  these  horns,  both  of  which  are  furnished  with  tooth- 
like  projections,  are  employed  in  Sawing  off  the  smaller  branches  of  trees,  the  beetle  grasping 


Ptitta  b,  H'.  P   Hand,,  F.Z.S.]  \Ririnl' I  Part 

TWO    BURYING-BEETLES 

These  insects  are  about  an  inch  in  length  j   many  are  blackt  but  others  haiie  orange-red  bands  on  the  iving-cases 

a  bough  firmly,  and  flying  round  and  round  in  a  circle,  till  the  wood  is  completely  cut 
through.  This  assertion,  however,  is  totally  unworthy  of  credit.  An  example  of  the  beetle  — 
evidently  imported  —  was  recently  found  crawling  on  a  hedge  near  Biggleswade. 

One  of  the  largest  of  all  known  beetles  is  DRURY'S  GOLIATH  BEETLE,  a  native  of  the  Gaboon, 
whose  body  is  almost  as  big  as  the  closed  fist  of  a  man.  It  appears  to  feed,  while  a  grub, 
on  the  wood  of  decaying  trees,  and  undergoes  its  transformation  to  the  chrysalis  state  in  an 
earthen  cocoon,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  that  a  thick  belt,  or  ridge,  runs  round  the  middle. 
How  this  belt  is  formed  is  a  mystery,  as  it  lies  upon  the  outside,  while  the  grub  necessarily 
constructs  the  cocoon  from  the  inside.  Several  living  examples  of  this  beetle  were  exhibited  in 
the  summer  of  1898  in  the  Insect-house  of  the  Zoological  Gardens  where  they  remained  for  five 
or  six  weeks,  feeding  on  the  flesh  of  melons.  A  photograph  of  this  beetle  will  be  found  in  the 
Coloured  Plate. 

The  common  COCKCHAFER  belongs  to  another  division  of  the  same  group.  This  insect  is 
extremely  injurious,  as  the  grub  lives  for  three  years  or  more  underground,  feeding  on  the 
roots  of  various  cultivated  plants.  The  perfect  beetle  appears  in  May  and  June,  and  is  only 
too  plentiful  almost  everywhere.  A  month  or  so  later  its  place  is  taken  by  the  SUMMER 
CHAFER,  or  JUNE  BUG,  which  may  often  be  seen  flying  in  hundreds  round  the  tops  of 
19 


286      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


HM,  h  If.  f.  Dnd,,  f.Z.S. 

MALE    STAG-BEETLE 

Tke  mflei  art  if  tern  2  i*tke>  long  ;  ike  femalei  lia-vt  comparatively  small 
ja-wi 


low  trees  soon  after  sunset,  while  the 
smaller  COCH-Y-BONODHU  —  the  "Cockcr- 
bundy"  of  the  angler — often  appears  about 
the  same  time  in  hundreds  of  thousands. 
The  beautiful 

ROSE-BEETLE, 

too,  with  its 
bright  golden- 
green  wing- 
cases  marked 
with  w  a  v  y 
whitish  lines, 
may  often  be 
seen  sunning 
itself  in  roses 
or  on  the 
blossoms  of 
pinks. 

The 
famous 
EGYPTIAN 
SCARAB.-EUS  is 
also  a  member 
of  this  group, 
for  the  sacred 


I 


Phttt  by  W.  P.  Da*d**  *.'/.  V 
Krgtnt'i  fart 

SKIPJACK    BEETI.K 


The  larva  of  tkii  family  are 
as  Wire-iuormt 


It  is  remarkable  not  only 
character  attributed  to  it 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  but  also  for  its 
curious  habit  of  rolling  along  balls  of  dung 
until  it  can  find  a  soft  spot  in  which  to 
bury  them.  When  the  egg  hatches,  the  grub  feeds  upon  the  dung,  the  quantity  provided 
being  exactly  sufficient  for  its  requirements.  The  common  DOR  BEETLE  is  allied  to  this  in- 
sect; it  tunnels  down  to  a 
depth  of  14  or  15  inches  be-  g] 
neath  a  patch  of  excrement,  and 
lays  its  egg  at  the  bottom  of 
the  burrow. 

The  SKIPJACK  BEETLES, 
parents  of  the  well-known  \Vire- 
worms,  which  cause  so  much 
mischief  by  feeding  upon  the 
roots  of  cultivated  crops,  repre- 
sent another  group.  These 
beetles  owe  their  popular  title 
to  their  singular  method  of  re- 
gaining their  feet  when  they 
happen  to  roll  over  upon  theii 
backs.  Their  bodies  being  very 
smooth  and  polished,  and  their 
legs  very  short,  they  cannot  re- 
cover their  footing  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  On  the  lower 
part  of  the  body,  however,  is  a 
highly  elastic  spine,  known  as 


I  i;  L.  H.  Jmlil] 

HERCULES 


[\*u>  Ttrk 


BEETLE    FLYING 


Tki  mt.il  remarkable  feature  aktm  ikli  mutt  it  in  Ituge  kern-like  frcjectitn  from  ikt  tker 
it  nurly  at  lenf  at  tki  reii  ef  it:  Mf 


SHEATH-WINGED    INSECTS 


287 


the  "  mucro,"  which  lies  in  a  sheath.  When  the  beetle  falls  over,  it  arches  its  body  into  the 
form  of  a  bow,  resting  only  upon  the  head  and  the  extreme  tip  of  the  abdomen,  removes  the 
spine  from  its  sheath,  and  then  drives  it  sharply  back  again.  The  result  is  that  the  central 
part  of  the  body  strikes  the  ground  with  such  force  that  the  insect  springs  into  the  air  to  a 
height  of  2  or  3  inches.  Then,  turning  half  over  as  it  falls,  it  alights  on  its  feet. 

The  FIRE-FLY  of  the  tropics  belongs  to  the  same  group.  The  luminosity  of  this  insect 
proceeds  from  two  different  parts  of  the  body,  a  brilliant  yellowish-green  light  shining  out 
through  two  transparent  window-like  spots  on  the  thorax,  while  an  orange  glow  is  visible  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen.  The  exact  cause  of  the  light  is  unknown,  as  is  also  the 
manner  of  its  control  by  the 
insect. 

The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  common  GLOW-WORM, 
in  which  the  light  proceeds 
from  the  lower  surface  of 
the  hind  part  of  the  body. 
The  male  of  this  insect  is 
winged ;  the  female  is  grub- 
like  in  appearance  and  wing- 
less. The  grub  itself,  which 
may  be  found  in  autumn,  is 
also  luminous,  and  feeds  upon 
snails. 

Another  group  includes 
a  very  large  number  of  beetles 
of  very  varying  character  and 
appearance.  Among  these  are 
the  OIL-BEETLES,  so  called 
from  their  habit  of  exuding 
small  drops  of  an  oily  liquid 
from  the  joints  of  their  limbs 
when  handled.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  batches  of  several 
thousand  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  and  the  little  long- 
legged  grubs,,  on  emerging, 
clamber  up  the  stemsofflowers, 
and  hide  themselves  among 
the  petals  to  await  the  coming 
of  a  bee.  When  one  of  the 
latter  appears,  two  or  three  of 
the  grubs  cling  to  its  hairy 
body,  and  are  carried  back  to  the  nest,  in  which  they  live  as  parasites.  One  of  these  beetles 
may  be  seen  commonly  upon  grassy  banks  in  early  spring. 

Allied  to  these  insects  is  the  BLISTER-BEETLE,  or  SPANISH  FLY,  so  well  known  from  its  use 
in  medicine.  It  is  a  very  handsome  species,  of  a  bright  golden-green  colour,  occasionally 
found  in  Great  Britain  on  the  foliage  of  ash-trees.  In  many  parts  of  Southern  Europe  it  is 
extremely  abundant. 

The  beetles  belonging  to  the  large  and  important  group  of  WEEVILS  are  characterised,  as 
a  rule,  by  the  fact  that  the  head  is  prolonged  into  a  more  or  less  long  and  slender  snout, 
or  "  rostrum,"  at  the  end  of  which  the  jaws  are  situated.  The  number  of  species  already 
known  is  above  20,000. 


F h,t,  by  B.  H. 


\_Shlflld 


COCKCHAFER    ON    DAISY 


A  very  destructive  insect  ivhich  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees.      The  larva  devours  the  roots  i 
plants,  and  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to  cause  very  serious  mischief 


288      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/•*./. »/  L.  a.  j~ 


HARLEQUIN    BEETLE 

ft'otice  till  i 'nor mom  lenftk  of  the  front  legt 


One  of  the  largest  and 
most  famous  of  these  in- 
sects is  the  DIA.MI 'Mi- 
ni i  i  ii  of  Brazil,  the  scales 
from  whose  wing-cases  are 
so  frequently  mounted  as 
microscopic  objects,  \\lun 
viewed  through  a  good 
instrument  under  a  power- 
ful light,  the  beauty  of 
these  scales  is  simply  in- 
describable. All  that  one 
can  say  of  them  is  that 
they  seem  to  be  composed 
of  diamonds,  rubies, 
topazes,  and  emeralds 
massed  together  in  rich 
profusion,  while  diamonds 
are  transformed  into  rubies, 
rubies  into  topazes,  and 
topazes  into  emeralds  at 
every  change  of  light. 

The  (  )SIKR-\VI:K\  n.,  a 

black-and-white  species  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  is  found  on  osiers  in  Great  Britain, 
the  grub  boring  galleries  in  the  stems,  and  often  causing  considerable  damage.  The  well-known 
CORN-WEEVIL  is  still  more  destructive  in  granaries,  the  walls  of  which  are  often  completely 
blackened  by  its  crawling  multitudes.  The  grub  lives  inside  the  grain,  eating  out  the  whole 
of  the  interior,  and  a  single  pair  of  the  wejvils  are  said  to  be  capable  of  producing  a  family  of 
more  than  6,000  individuals  in  the  course  of  a  single  season.  The  RH  K-UKKVIL  is  equally 
destructive  to  rice,  and  may  be  recognised  by  the  two  red  spots  on  each  wing-case. 

The  famous  "GRU-GRU  "  of  the  West  Indies,  which  is  regarded  as  so  great  a  dainty  both 
by  the  negroes  and  by  many  of  the  white  colonists,  is  the  grub  of  the  PAI.M-\YI:I:\ u..  It 
lives  in  the  stems  of  palm-trees,  and  also  in  those  of  sugar-canes,  causing  a  great  deal  of 
mischief  by  its  burrowings.  When  fully  fed,  it  constructs  a  cocoon  by  tearing  off  strips  of 
bark  and  weaving  them  neatly  together.  The  SuGAR-WKi.vn,  is  still  more  troublesome,  feeding 
upon  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  and  affecting  the  entire  plant  in  such  a  manner  that  sugar 
can  no  longer  be  manufactured  from  it. 

"  Bad  "  nuts  are  also  due  to  one  of 
these  insects,  the  common  NUT-WEEVIL, 
which  introduces  its  egg  into  the  kernel 
during  the  earlier  stages  of  its  development. 
When  the  grub  hatches,  it  proceeds  to  de- 
vour the  kernel,  leaving  a  quantity  of  bad- 
flavoured  "  frass  "  behind  it,  while  the  shell 
is  left  untouched  until  the  perfect  insect 
emerges.  An  allied  species  attacks  aci'in- 
in  a  similar  manner. 

Among  the  finest  and  largest  of  all 
beetles  arc  many  of  those  belonging  to  the 
great  Long  horn  group,  of  which  the  com- 
mon BRITISH  Mi  -I.-HI  r.i  I.K  is  a  familiar 


example.    This  insect  owes  both  its  popular 


JUMPING-B  K K T  I. K,    ALLIED 
TURNIP-PLEA 

It  it  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length 


TO    THE 


SHEATH-WINGED    INSECTS 


289 


and  scientific  titles  to  its  powerful  odour,  which  perhaps  resembles  that  of  sweetbriar  rather 
than  musk,  and  can  often  be  detected  at  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  yards.  The  beetle, 
which  is  rich  metallic  green  in  colour,  with  long,  slender  antennae,  may  be  found  in  July 
sunning  itself  on  the  trunks  or  foliage  of  willow-trees.  It  varies  considerably  in  size. 

Still  more  plentiful  is  the  WASP-BEETLE,  with  its  black  wing-cases  banded  with  bright 
yellow.  While  flying,  it  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  insect  whose  name  it  bears.  The 
grub  lives  in  old  posts,  rails,  hop-poles,  etc.,  feeding  upon  the  solid  wood. 

The  TlMBERMAN  is  remarkable  for  the  extreme  length  of  the  antennas,  which,  in  the  male 
insect,  are  three  or  four  times  as  long  as  the  body,  and  trail  out  far  behind  it  during  flight.  It 
is  found,  not  uncommonly,  in  fir  woods  in  Scotland. 

The  beautiful  HARLEQUIN  BEETLE  of  tropical  America  is  one  of  the  largest  members  of 
the  group,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  front  legs  as  well  as  for  the  singular 
colouring  of  the  wing-cases.  It  lives  almost  entirely  in  the 
trees,  swinging  itself  from  branch  to  branch  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  a  spider-monkey.  When  it  ventures  into  the  air, 
it  is  greatly  incommoded  by  the  size  of  its  limbs  and  the 
length  of  its  antennae,  and  seems  to  have  but  little  power  of 
directing  its  course. 

Another  great  group  of  beetles  is  that  of  the  PLANT-EATERS, 
many  of  which  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  The  REED-BEETLES, 
for  example,  are  resplendent  in  crimson  and  green  and  purple 
and  blue,  while  the  metallic  radiance  of  others  has  gained  for  them 
the  title  of  GOLDEN  APPLES. 

The  notorious  COLORADO  BEETLE  or  POTATO  BUG  is  a 
member  of  this  group.  It  may  be  recognised  at  once  by  the  five 
black  streaks  running  down  each  of  the  yellow  wing-cases.  On 
the  havoc  which  it  causes  among  potato-plants  in  North  America 
it  is  unnecessary  to  dilate.  On  a  smaller  scale,  the  TURNIP-FLEA 
is  very  mischievous  in  Britain,  perforating  the  leaves  of  turnip- 
plants,  or  —  worse  still  —  eating  off  the  seed-leaves  as  soon  as  they 
appear  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Of  only  too  many  of 
these  exquisite  beetles,  in  fact,  it  must  be  said  that  their  beauty  is 
only  equalled  by  their  destructiveness. 

The  LADYBIRDS  include  a  very  large  number  of  species. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  the  common  TWO-SPOT  LADYBIRD,  are 
exceedingly  variable,  a  long  series  being  easily  obtained  in 
which  no  two  specimens  resemble  one  another.  Both  as  grubs 
and  as  perfect  insects  they  feed  upon  the  "  Green  Fly  "  of  the 
farmer,  combining  with  the  grubs  of  the  Lace-wing  and  Hoverer 
Flies  to  keep  its  numbers  within  due  limits. 

Almost  equally  common  is  the  SEVEN-SPOT  LADYBIRD,  a  considerably  larger  insect,  with 
seven  round  black  spots  on  its  scarlet  wing-cases,  which  may  be  seen  on  almost  any  grassy 
bank  in  spring.  Both  this  and  the  preceding  species  sometimes  visit  the  Kentish  coast  in  vast 
swarms,  the  beach  being  reddened  by  their  bodies  for  miles.  The  last  immigration  of  this 
description  took  place  in  1886,  in  the  summer  of  which  year  the  hops  in  East  Kent  were 
almost  destroyed  by  blight,  and  the  ladybirds  made  their  way  at  once  to  the  hop-fields  and 
cleared  them  of  the  pest  in  a  wonderfully  short  space  of  time.  A  much  smaller  species, 
known  as  the  TWENTY-TWO  SPOT,  is  yellow  in  colour  and  has  eleven  black  spots  on  each  wing- 
case.  It  is  generally  found  crawling  about  on  nettle-leaves  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer. 

Allied  to  the  Ladybirds  are  the  very  curious  TORTOISE-BEETLES.  In  these  insects  the 
wing-cases  project  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the  legs  are 
so  short  that  only  the  feet  can  be  seen  from  above,  so  that  the  appearance  is  very  much  like 


photo  bi  J.  Ed-wards}  [Ctltihrne 

REED-BEETLE 

Among  the  group  to  ivhich  this  insect  belongi 

are  many  of  the  most  brilliantly 

coloured  British  beetles 


290     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

that  of  a  tortoise  with  the  limbs  partly  with- 
drawn into  the  shell.  Many  different  species 
are  known,  in  some  of  which  the  wing-cases 
are  streaked  with  brilliant  metallic  silver, 
which,  however,  fades  away  very  shortly  after 
death.  The  commonest  of  the  British  tor- 
toise-beetles is  found  on  thistles. 

Another  very  large  group  of  beetles  is 
represented  by  the  CELLAR-BEETLE,  which  is 
generally  very  common  in  old  houses.  Thi-. 
insect  must  not  be  confused  with  the  so- 
called  "  Black-beetle,"  from  which  it  may 
easily  be  distinguished  by  its  deep  black 
colour,  its  very  much  shorter  feelers,  and  the 
curious  point  into  which  the  end  of  its  body 
is  produced.  It  hides  away  in  dark  corners 
by  day,  and  crawls  slowly  about  by  night. 
Related  to  it  is  the  MEAL-WORM,  so  much 
in  request  for  the  food  of  cage-birds,  which 
is  usually  very  plentiful  in  granaries. 

Very  different  in  appearance,  yet  belong- 
ing to  the  same  group,  is  the  handsome 
CARDINAL  BEETLE,  a  bright  scarlet  insect 

M  U  a  K.  —  n  r,  r,  ILK,  i_  •    i_    •  •  T. 

which  is  not  uncommon  in  summer.     It  may 

T4*  tJcur  »f  tkit  t*tttt  may  often  he  detected  at  a  distance  of  twenty  or  .  ,          -  •    •    _i_a  L    i  •      i       • 

tkirnjfrdi  sometimes   be    found   lurking  behind  pieces 

of   loose    bark,  and   is   also  fond  of  resting 

upon  the  flowers  of  umbelliferous  plants  in  the  hot  sunshine.     A  second  species,  which   is  not 
nearly  so  plentiful,  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  head  is  entirely  black. 

Still  more  curious  is  the  R.HIPIPHORUS  BEETLE,  which  is  parasitic  within  the  nests  of 
wasps.  Where  the  egg  is  laid,  or  how  the  grub  first  finds  its  way  into  the  nest,  no  one  has 
yet  succeeded  in  discovering;  but  having  made  its  entry,  the  insect  proceeds  to  burrow  into 
the  body  of  a  wasp-grub,  and  lives  within  it  for  several  days,  feeding  upon  its  flesh  mean- 
while. After  increasing  considerably  in  size,  it  creeps  out  of  the  carcase  of  its  victim  and 
changes  its  skin,  after  which  it  resumes  its  interrupted  meal,  and  continues  to  feed  until  the 
last  vestige  of  the  wasp-grub  has  been  devoured.  It  then  changes  to  a  chrysalis  in  the 
cell,  and  the  perfect  insect  appears  a  few  days  later.  Oddly  enough,  the  wasps  appear  to  take 
no  notice  of  its  presence,  and  never  attempt  to  molest  it.  The  two  sexes  of  this  beetle  are 
quite  unlike  one  another,  the  male  having  the  wing-cases  yellow  and  the  feelers  heavily  plumed, 
while  the  female  is  black,  with  the  feelers  only  slightly  toothed. 

Most  singular  of  all  the  insects  belonging  to  this  order,  however,  is  the  strange  little 
STALK-EM  I  >  Hi  KILE,  which  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  life  half  buried  in  the  body  of  a  bee. 
In  this  insect  the  feelers  are  branched,  somewhat  like  the  antennules,  or  lesser  feelers,  of  a 
lobster,  and  the  eyes,  which  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  are  set  at  the  ends  of  short 
foot-stalks.  The  male  has  very  narrow  wing-cases,  but  extremely  large  wings,  which  have  a 
milky  appearance  during  flight  that  can  hardly  be  mistaken.  The  female  has  no  wings  at  all, 
and  in  general  aspect  is  nothing  more  than  a  grub.  In  early  spring  a  great  number  of 
solitary  bees  are  infested  by  this  extraordinary  parasite,  which  burrows  into  their  bodies  under 
cover  of  the  projecting  edges  of  the  segments,  and  there  remains  feeding  upon  their  internal 
juices  for  several  weeks,  with  only  just  the  tip  of  its  tail  protruding.  \Vhcn  fully  fed,  it  em 
from  the  body  of  its  involuntary  host,  leaving  a  large  round  hole  behind  it,  which  frequently 
closes  up  and  heals.  In  any  case,  strange  to  say,  the  ravages  of  the  parasite  appear  to  have  but 
little  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  bee. 


STRAIGHT-WINGED    INSECTS 


291 


STRAIGHT-WINGED    INSECTS,   OR   EARWIGS,   COCKROACHES,  SOOTHSAYERS, 
STICK-INSECTS,    CRICKETS,  GRASSHOPPERS,   AND   LOCUSTS 

BY    W.    F.    KIRBY,    F.L.S. 


f 


Ph,i,  tj  W.  p. 
Dandt,  F.Z.S. 

EARWIG 

The  forceps- 
like  affend- 
age  at  the  end 
of  this  insect's 
body  it  laid  to 
be  used  for 
folding  and 
unfolding  the 
•wings 


THE  insects  of  this  order  are  less  numerous  in  species  than  those  of  any  other  but  the  next, 
and  are  easily  recognised.  The  fore  wings  are  usually  of  a  leathery  consistency,  and  the  hind 
wings  are  folded  beneath  them  like  a  fan  in  the  more  typical  families,  though  in 
the  Earwigs  and  Cockroaches  a  somewhat  different  arrangement  prevails.  In  the 
Earwigs,  indeed,  the  wings  are  doubled  back  at  the  ends,  and  in  the  Cockroaches 
the  wing-cases,  or  "  tegmina,"  as  they  are  technically  called,  overlap.  As  a  rule 
these  insects  feed  entirely  on  vegetable  substances.  The  "  Soothsayers"  form  an 
exception,  being  carnivorous,  though  they  are  not  parasitic,  like  the  Ichneumon- 
flies,  but  feed  on  fresh  food  ;  and  several  species  of  Earwigs,  Cockroaches,  and 
Crickets,  especially  those  which  are  semi-domesticated,  are  omnivorous,  and  will 
eat  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  food.  These  insects  have  an  imperfect  metamor- 
phosis —  that  is,  there  is  no  inactive  pupa-state ;  but  the  young,  on  emerging  from 
the  egg,  already  possess  a  recognisable  resemblance  to  their  full-grown  parents, 
and  their  metamorphosis  consists  of  a  series  of  moults,  before  the  last  of  which 
rudimentary  wings  appear  in  those  species  which  ultimately  acquire  these  appen- 
dages. A  considerable  number  of  species  never  have  wings,  a  circumstance  which 
frequently  renders  it  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  specimen  is  fully  developed. 
The  antennae  are  usually  long,  and  the  joints  distinctly  separated,  but  are  very  rarely  feathered. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  body  we  often  find  two  long  jointed  organs,  called  "  cerci."  The  jaws 
are  always  furnished  with  strong  mandibles.  Many  Grasshoppers  and  Locusts  have  a  curious 
arrangement  on  the  shank  of  the  front  leg,  consisting  either  of  a  round  or  an  oval  cavity 
on  each  side,  closed  by  a  membrane,  or  of  two  long  parallel  slits  in  front.  These  are  con- 
sidered to  be  organs  of  hearing.  The  largest  known  insects  belong  to  this  order ;  the  proportion 
of  large  or  moderate-sized  species  is  considerable;  and  the  smallest  are  probably  considerably 
larger  than  the  smallest  members  of  any  other  group.  They  are  not  numerous  in  temperate 

climates;  there  are  only  about  fifty  British 
species,  and  most  of  the  larger  of  these  are 
cither  naturalised  species,  or  merely  casual 
visitors  from  abroad. 

The  EARWIGS  form  the  first  family.  Some 
are  wingless,  but  most  haveVery  short  wing-cases, 
under  which  very  large  wings,  forming  the  most 
beautiful  feature  of  these  otherwise  unattractive 
insects,  are  doubled  and  folded  into  a  very 
small  compass.  Some  of  the  smaller  species  fly 
readily ;  but  others,  such  as  the  COMMON  EAR- 
WIG, though  furnished  with  ample  wings,  are 
rarely  seen  to  use  them.  The  most  conspicuous 
organ  of  the  earwigs  is  the  curious  forceps  at 
the  extremity  of  the  body,  the  use  of  which 
does  not  seem  to  be  well  made  out,  though  it 
has  been  suggested  that  it  is  used  for  folding 
and  unfolding  the  wings.  The  forceps  differs 
very  much  in  size  and  shape  in  different  species  ; 
it  is  always  larger  in  the  male  than  in  the 
female,  and  often  differently  shaped.  In  the 
common  earwig  the  male  forceps  is  flattened 
and  contiguous  at  the  base,  and  rounded  and 


Phut  fy  IV.  P.  Dand,,  F.Z.S. 

AMERICAN 


COCKROACH 


Common  in  many  ii-arcAouses  and  noiu  found  in  most  farts  of  the 
•world 


292       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


STICK-INSECT 

knni'n  is   a  sfecies  tf  stick-insect ;  it  is  a  native  of 
Btrneo,  and  measures  /  ?  incites 


\V  A  I.K  IN(.      I.I   A  I       IN-I   (     P8 

tf  <kt    Eta    Indlll,   and  remartahit  Jlr   ikcir   rnrmt/ancr  It 
freer.    • 


incurved  at  the  extremity.  There  are  two 
varieties,  in  one  of  which  the  forceps  is 
twice  as  long  as  in  the  other;  but  inter- 
mediate gradations  do  not  si-em  to  be  met 
with.  In  the  female  the  forceps  is  narrow, 
nearly  straight,  and  approximating.  The , 
earwig  is  a  nocturnal  insect,  and  hides  itself 
during  the  day  in  large-headed  flowers,  like 
dahlias,  to  which  it  is  very  destructive,  or 
in  any  convenient  dark  and  narrow  crevice, 
especially  among  decaying  vegetable  matter. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  occasionally 
entering  the  human  ear,  but  it  may  be 
easily  drivc-n  out  by  dropping  in  a  little  olive 
oil.  In  most  books  it  is  denied  that  earwigs 
enter  the  ear  at  all,  but  it  is,  nevertheless, 
an  undoubted  fact;  and  the  fanciful  deriva- 
tion that  has  been  suggested  of  earning  in 
the  place  of  earwig  cannot  be  entertained 
respecting  an  insect  which  seldom  shows  its 
wings  at  all.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
female  earwig  is  said  to  tend  her  young 
very  much  as  a  hen  tends  her  chickens  —  an 
uncommon  habit  in  insects. 

The  COMMON  COCKROACH  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  The  individuals 
with  half-developed  wings  are  the  perfect 
females ;  but  there  are  other  species  in  which 
the  wings  are  fully  developed  in  both  s° 
others  in  which  the  male  is  winged  and 
the  female  wingless,  and  others  again  in 
which  both  sexes  arc  wingless.  In  warm 
countries  and  on  ship-board  cockroaches  are 
far  more  troublesome  than  in  cold  climes; 
and  the  large  brown  ones,  \\ith  a  mark  on 
the  back  of  the  thorax  resembling  a  crown, 
and  very  broad  wing-cases  and  wings,  are 
called  DlUMMKKS  in  the  West  Indies,  from 
the  loud  noise  they  keep  up  during  the 
night. 

I  .ady  Burton  has  given  an  amusing 
account  of  her  introduction  to  cockroaches 
abroad:  "After  two  days  we  were  given  a 
very  pleasant  suite  of  rooms  —  bedroom, 
dining-  and  drawing-room  — with  wide  win- 
dows overlooking  the  Tagus  and  a  great  part 
of  Lisbon.  These  quarters  were,  however, 
not  without  drawbacks,  for  here  occurred  an 
incident  which  gave  me  a  foretaste  of  the 
sort  of  thing  I  was  to  expect  in  Brazil. 
(  >ur  bedroom  was  a  large  whitewashed  place; 
there  were  three  holes  in  the  wall,  one  at 


GOLIATH    BEETLE. 


CARPENTER  BEE. 


CORAL-WINGED  GRASSHOPPER. 


BLUE-WINGED  CANDLE   INSECT. 


KOI1BKR    FI.Y. 


LONG-HORNED    ANT-LION. 


STRAIGHT-WINGED    INSECTS 


293 


Pfc«.  tj  «•'.  P   Dond,,  F.Z.S. 

HOUSE-CRICKET 

J^cry  similar  in  its    habits   to 
the  cockroach 


the  bedside  bristling  with  horns,  and  these  were  cockroaches  some  three 

inches  long.     The  drawing-room  was  gorgeous  with  yellow  satin,  and 

the  magnificent  yellow  curtains    were    sprinkled    with    these  crawling 

things.      The    consequence  was  that    I  used  to  stand  on  a  chair  and 

scream.     This  annoyed   Richard  very  much.     '  A  nice  sort  of  traveler 

and  companion  yon  are  going  to  make,'  he  said;   '  I   suppose  you  chink 

you  look    very   pretty    and     interesting    standing  on    that  chair  and 

howling  at   those   innocent    creatures.'     This    hurt  me  so  much  that, 

without  descending  from  the  chair,   I    stopped   screaming,  and  made  a 

meditation  like  St.  Simon  Stylites  on  his  pillar;   and   it  was,   '  That  if  I 

was  going  to  live  in  a  country    always   in   contact  with  these  and  worse 

things,  though   I   had   a  perfect  horror  of  anything  black  and  crawling, 

it  would  never  do  to  go  on   like  that.'     So    I  got  down,  fetched  a  basin 

of  water  and  a  slipper,  and  in  two  hours   by  the   watch   I   had   knocked 

ninety-seven  of  them  into    it.     It  cured  me.      From  that  day  I  had  no 

more  fear  of  vermin  and   reptiles,  which  is  just  as  well  in   a  country 

where  Nature  is  over-luxuriant.     A  little  while   after  we    changed  our 

rooms  we   were  succeeded    by    Lord    and    Lady  Lytton,   and,  to  my 

infinite  delight,  I  heard  the  same  screams  coming  from  the  same  room 

a   little  while  after.     '  There,'   I   said   in    triumph,    '  you  see   I  am   not   the   only  woman  who 

does  not  like  cockroaches.'  ' 

The  dimensions  of  the  insects  are  not  so  much  exaggerated ;   for  I  believe  this  story  refers 

to  the  large  reddish  cockroach,  which  is  common  in  many  cities,   although  only   in  warehouses. 

It  does  not  usually  much  exceed  an  inch   in  length ;   but  the   antennae  are  very  long,  and  the 

wing-cases  expand  nearly  3  inches.     (See  photograph  on  page  689.) 

The  SOOTHSAYERS,  or  PRAYING-INSECTS,  are  not  British,  though  one  or  two  species  are  found 

in  the  south  of  Europe.     They  have   long  fore  legs,  the  shanks  of  which  are  set  with  a  double 

row  of  long,  curving,  sabre-like  spines,  and  when  at  rest  they 
hold  them  up  as  if  in  the  attitude  of  prayer ;  but  they  are 
really  on  the  look-out  for  prey,  and  the  long  spines  are  admirably 
adapted  for  wounding  or  grasping  the  insects  which  form  their 
food.  They  also  fight  fiercely  among  themselves,  and  it  is  no 
uncommon  occurrence  for  a  female  to  tear  to  pieces  and  devour 
her  mate,  either  during  or  after  their  courtship.  The  soothsayers 
are  often  of  a  green  colour,  so  as  to  match  the  grass  and  leaves 
among  which  they  live,  and  thus  conceal  them  from  their  prey. 

The  STICK-INSECTS,  or  SPECTRE-INSECTS,  have  some  resem- 
blance to  the  Soothsayers,  but  are  exclusively  vegetable-feeders,  and 
have  long,  sprawling  legs,  or  shorter  ones,  sometimes  more  or  less 
lobate  ;  but  they  never  possess  prehensile  fore  legs  for  seizing  prey. 
The  wing-cases  are  generally  quite  small ;  but  some  species  have 
beautiful  large  green  or  pink  wings,  folded  fan-wise,  and  covered  by 
the  stout  front  border  of  the  wing.  Many  species  are  wingless, 
and  of  a  grey  or  brown  colour,  which  renders  them  scarcely  distin- 
guishable from  dry  bits  of  stick  ;  and  among  these  is  the  largest  living 
insect  known,  a  grey  stick-like  species  from  Borneo,  measuring 
nearly  13  inches  from  head  to  tail.  Other  species  have  curious 
excrescences  on  the  legs  and  body,  which  make  them  look  like 
bits  of  wood  overgrown  with  moss  or  lichen;  while  others  possess 
large  flat  lobes  growing  from  the  legs  and  body,  which  cause  them 
to  be  almost  indistinguishable  from  green  leaves ;  and,  indeed, 
these  insects  arc  frequently  called  "  Walking  Leaves." 


ttutt  iy  It'.  P    P,.nA.,  F.Z.S. 

MOLE-CRICKET 


A    brown    insect  about   2    inches  long. 

The  I'ery  broad  and  fiat  front  legs 

are  used  for  hur'oiving 


294       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


L.  H    JM,1\ 

LONG-HORNED 


GRASSHOPPER 


T  kit  ititect  belongt  to  ike  tjme  family  at  the  well-known  Briritk  tpeciet.  The 
iffcimeit  from  vtkifk  tktt  fkoto^rafk  luat  taken  kad  unfortunately  (at  it  often 
tkt  cau)  broken  antennte  ;  tkiy  tkoulj  be  twite  at  fang  at  ike  wingt 


thrown  on  the  ground  overnight,  and  a 
board  laid  over  it,  one  or  two  mole-crickets 
are  likely  to  be  found  underneath  in  the 
morning.  The  HOUSE-CRICKET  resembles 
this  insect  in  colour,  but  is  not  much  more 
than  half  an  inch  long,  and  there  is  nothing 
remarkable  in  the  structure  of  its  legs.  It  is 
almost  the  only  noisy  insect  found  in  English 
houses,  and  is  very  similar  to  the  common 
cockroach  in  its  habits,  although  free  from 
the  disagreeable  smell  which  adds  to  the 
disgust  the  latter  insect  often  inspires.  The 
third  species,  the  FIELD-CRICKET,  is  a 
smooth  black  insect,  larger  and  stouter  than 
the  house-cricket.  It  constructs  burrows  in 
grassy  places,  but  is  not  now  a  very  common 
species  in  England.  In  the  last  two  species, 
and  many  others,  there  is  a  bare  space  on 
one  of  the  wing-cases  of  the  male,  crossed 
by  ribs  in  a  manner  varying  according  to 
the  species,  which  helps  to  produce  the 
loud  chirping  for  which  these  insects  are 
remarkable. 

The  LONC.-MORNED  GK  \SSIK  HTKKS, 
which  form  the  next  family,  are  distinguished 
by  having  four  joints  to  their  feet,  a  long  ovi- 
positor in  the  female,  and  very  long.  slemlrr 
antennie.  The  commom -t  Aperies  inhabiting 
England,  and  one  of  tin-  largest  grasshop- 
is  the  GREAT  dki  i  \  <  ,i:  \--HI 'i-ri  K. 
which  is  found  leaping  about  among  long 


With  theCRlCKKis  we  commence 
the  last  three  families  of  the  group, 
which  are  distinguished  from  the 
others  by  their  power  of  leaping. 
The  hind  legs  arc  very  long,  with 
very  thick  thighs,  and  generally  a 
double  row  of  strong  teeth  or  spines 
on  the  shanks.  The  feet  are  generally 
three-jointed,  and  there  is  usually  a 
long  ovipositor  in  the  females.  There 
are  very  few  true  crickets  in  Eng- 
land, but  three  of  these  are  very  con- 
spicuous species.  The  first  is  the 
Mtn.E-CRlcKEr.  a  large  light  brown 
insect  nearly  2  inches  long,  with 
broad,  short  front  legs  rather  like 
those  of  a  mole,  which  it  uses  in  a 
similar  way.  Though  common  and 
destructive  in  fields  and  gardens,  it 
is  not  often  seen;  but  if  water  be 


rint.  t,  >.  fjw*,*,]  [c,;.i*.'». 

CAPE     <;K  ASSIIOIMM  R     <KKM  All 
Tkh  irtttft,  ";t'AiiJt  it  rtmarkdhlt  for  tkt  intf.Hrd  bltdder-like  jftftearan 

of  tktmalf*  n  a*  ••  jmortg  tkt  Botn. 

Colour t  bright  af>fKf-£reft  ii-itA  ivhitt  ttripti 


Phott  bjr  Highltj 


EGYPTIAN    LOCUST 

A  commom  North  African  species 


EGYPTIAN     LOCUST 

This  figure  $hoiv$  the  upper  surface  of  the  specimen  represented  in  the  preceding  photograph 

295 


296      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


grass  and  low  bushes,  especially  in  the  south  of  England.  It  is  about  2  inches  in  length. 
Among  the  foreign  species  of  this  rather  extensive  family,  we  may  mention  some  green  or 
reddish  South  American  species,  with  a  large  round  spot  on  the  hind  wings,  not  unlike  those  seen 
in  the  peacock-buUerlly. 

The    last    family    includes    the    Sl!<>KT-W>K\r.l>    GRASSHOPPERS,    or   TRUE    LOCUSTS,    so 

very  destructive  in  many  countries, 
though  the  real  MIGRATORY  Loci 
are  only  casual  visitors  to  England, 
the  native  British  species  being  all 
small  insects,  found  among  grass, 
and  doing  but  little  damage.  The 
commonest  of  the  Migratory  Locusts 
visiting  Britain  is  the  RED-I.I  >.i,i  i> 
LOCUST,  which  expands  from  2  to  4 
inches,  and  has  grey  wing-cases  varied 
with  brown,  pale  green  hind  wings. 
and  red  hind  shanks,  with  white 
black-tipped  spines.  Another  species, 
the  ECYITIAN  LoCUST,  more  rarely 
met  with,  has  brown  fore  wings,  and 
grey  hind  wings,  crossed  by  a  bm.nl 
blackish  band.  Two  photographs  arc 
given  on  page  693  of  a  specimen 
brought  to  England  among  vegetables 
|  '  *"  ^  in  '.he  spring  "f  lyoi.  Many  foreign 

locusts,  large  and  small,  have  beauti- 
ful red  or  blue  hind  wings,  and  some 
of  these  are  common  on  the  Continent, 
though  not  in  England;  those  found 
in  Europe  are  comparatively  small, 
measuring  only  i  or  2  inches  across 
the  wing-eases;  but  some  of  the  great 
South  American  locusts  measure  as 
much  as  7  or  8  inches  in  exp.m-e. 
However,  some  of  the  smaller  species, 
Mich  as  the  Cvi'RlAN  LO<TST  and 
theUiK  K\  MOUNTAIN  LOITST, which 
measure  less  than  2  inches  aci 
the  wing-eases,  are  much  more  de- 
structive than  the  large  specu  . 

A  real  invasion  of  locusts  is  a 
terrible  calamity,  for  the  insects  fly 
like  birds,  but  in  vast  flocks,  and  de- 
vour every  scrap  of  vegetation  where 
they  settle.  Sometimes  a  flight,  two 
or  three  miles  broad,  continues  to  fly 
steadily  over  the  same  spot  for  hours  together.  Sometimes  flocks  perish  at  sea,  and  are  cast 
up  on  the  beach  in  heaps  like  sand-hills,  extending  for  a  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  miles.  Nor  are 
the  young  locusts  l»-ss  destructive  before  they  ac<|iiire  wings;  for  they  march  across  a  district  in 
such  numbers  as  to  extinguish  fires,  fill  up  trenches,  and  overcome  all  similar  obstacles  placed  in 
their  way  by  sheer  force  of  numbers;  and  it  is  well  said  of  a  visitation  of  locusts,  "The  land  is 
as  the  Garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  is  a  desolate  wilderness." 


f>i,,n 


If.  L.  H.  Dtutat-tk 


WART-EATING     GRASSHOPPER    (TWO     VIF.\\S| 
Uud  hj  Svitdiik  ftataitti  to  kill  cff  iktir  :u<:i 


NERVE-WINGED    OR    LACE-WINGED    INSECTS        297 


NERVE-WINGED  OR  LACE-WINGED  INSECTS,  OR  DRAGON-FLIES  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES 

BY  THE  REV.  THEODORE  WOOD,  F.E.S. 

THE  Nerve-winged  Insects  owe  their  title  to  the  peculiar  character  of  their  wings,  the  horny 
veins  which  form  the  framework  of  those  organs  being  multiplied  and  sub-divided  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  assume  the  appearance  of  exceedingly  delicate  network. 

These  insects  fall  naturally  into  two  great  groups,  in  one  of  which  the  chrysalis,  or  pupa,  is 
active,  and  continues  to  take  food  like  the  grub,  while  in  the  other  it  is  passive  and  helpless,  like 
that  of  a  butterfly  or  a  moth. 

Prominent  among  the  members  of  the  first  division  are  the  Dragon-flies,  which  owe  their 
title  partly  to  their  extreme  voracity,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  they  feed  entirely  upon  living 
insects,  which  they  pursue  through  the  air.  They  are  exceedingly  swift  of  wing,  and  may 
be  seen  hawking  over  ponds  and  streams  on  any  fine  day  throughout  the  summer  and  early 
autumn. 

The  earlier  part  of  their  lives  is  spent  in  the  wj.ter,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  by  the 
parent  insect  The  grubs  are  usually  of  a  dull  grey  or  .brownish-green  colour,  and  are  remark- 
able for  a  curious  organ  known  as  the  "  mask," 
which  partly  covers  the  lower  surface  of  the 
head.  This  apparatus  consists  of  two  joints, 
which  fold  upon  one  another,  but  can  be  ex- 
tended at  will,  the  one  farthest  from  the  head 
terminating  in  a  pair  of  large  and  powerful 
jaws.  When  the  grub  perceives  an  insect- 
victim,  it  swims  cautiously  beneath,  and  seizes 
it  by  means  of  these  jaws.  The  "  mask  "  is 
then  folded,  and  the  prisoner  drawn  down 
within  reach  of  the  mandibles,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  speedily  devoured. 

The  method  of  swimming  practised  by 
the  dragon-fly  grub  is  also  very  curious. 
Through  the  centre  of  the  body  runs  a 
longitudinal  tube,  terminating  in  a  circular 
orifice,  closed  by  means  of  five  tightly  fitting 
valves.  These  valves,  which  together  form  a 
sharp  spike  when  closed,  can  be  separated  at 
will.  When  the  insect  wishes  to  swim,  it 
fills  the  tube  with  water,  and  then  squirts 

the     Contents    forcibly    OUt,     the     result    being 

If      Jc     ^i-iVon     ctvi'fi-hr     fnrivaivlc      K,r     (4,» 
It     IS    onven    SWiftly     forwards      by     the 


f.  P. 


J.,  F.Z.S. 
DRAGON-FLY 


These  insects  are  often  known  as  "  Horst-itingen,"  although  they  Jo 

not  sting  horses  ;  in  fact,  they  arc  perfectly  harmless,  except 

tt  hxcu  mailer  <mdv>iak*rtta*dUmuhat 

reaction. 

The  pupa  of  the  dragon-fly  is  very  much  like  the  grub,  with  the  exception  that  the 
rudiments  of  the  future  wings  may  be  seen  on  the  back. 

About  forty  species  of  these  insects  are  found  in  the  British  Islands,  of  which  the  GREAT 
DRAGON-FLY  is  a  well-known  example.  The  body  is  3  inches  in  length,  while  the  extended 
wings  measure  about  4  inches  from  tip  to  tip.  In  colour  it  is  light  rusty  brown,  with  a 
few  pale  markings.  The  "  HORSE-STINGER  "  —  which  is  perfectly  harmless,  notwithstanding  its 
popular  title  —  is  also  common,  and  may  be  recognised  at  once  by  its  flat  dull  yellow  body, 
which  becomes  blue  in  the  fully  developed  male.  In  the  graceful  and  beautiful  DKMuuELLE 
the  male  is  deep  blue,  with  black  patches  on  the  wings,  while  the  female  is  entirely  green. 

Allied  to  these  insects  is  the  COMMON  MAY-FLY,  popularly  supposed  to  live  for  one  day 
only.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  spends  a  couple  of  years  in  the  grub  and  pupa  states, 
inhabiting  burrows  in  the  banks  of  ponds  and  streams.  These  burrows  are  curved,  and  have 


298      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


«.<.  »r 


QUEEN    TERMITE 

Htr  kugi  TV/kite  ttdy  it  full  if  eggi,  ef  vjkiik 
iki  la\i  itonumJi  nrety  Jay 

defend  the  nest  when  attacked. 


two  entrances,  one  above  the  other,  so  that  the  insect  can 
pass  in  and  out  with  perfect  C.I-M  . 

The  May-fly  is  also  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  the 
perfect  insect  changes  its  skin  shortly  after  reaching  maturity. 
Before  this  change  takes  place  the  female  insect  is  the 
"Green  Drake  "  of  the  angler;  afterward-,  the  "Grey  Drake." 

To  this  group  belong  also  the  TKKMITKS.  or  "  White 
Ants,"  so  exceedingly  numerous  in  almost  all  the  wanner 
parts  of  the  world.  These  are  social  insects,  living  together 
in  vast  colonies,  and  making  most  wonderful  nests,  which 
consist  of  a  vast  and  complicated  series  of  chambers  and 
passages,  sheltered  beneath  a  turn-ted  dome  of  clay.  In 
the  centre  is  the  "royal  cell,"  inhabited  by  the  "kin-" 
and  "  queen,"  as  the  perfect  male  and  female  .ire  called. 
These  are  winged  when  first  they  leave  the  pupal  shell. 
Hut  after  taking  a  single  flight,  they  snap  off  their  wings 
at  the  base,  just  as  ants  do;  while  for  the  rest  of  their 
lives  they  are  absolute  prisoners  in  the  cell  built  around 
them  by  the  workers. 

Shortly  after  this  strange  incarceration  takes  place,  the 
body  of  the  queen  swells  to  a  huge  size,  so  that,  to  quote 
Professor  Drummond,  she  becomes  "  a  large,  loathsome, 
cylindrical  package,  2  or  3  inches  long,  in  shape  like  a 
sausage,  and  as  white  as  a  bolster."  She  now  begins  to 
deposit  eggs  at  the  rate  of  several  thousands  in  a  day, 
which  are  at  once  carried  off  by  the  workers,  to  whom  is 
entrusted  the  entire  care  of  the  helpless  young.  Tlu^e 
workers,  which  are  exceedingly  numerous,  also  enlarge  the 
nest  from  time  to  time,  and  construct  tunnels  of  clay  up  the 
trunks  and  along  the  branches  of  trees,  through  which  they 
may  convey  to  the  nurseries  in  security  the  gums  and 
decaying  wood  for  the  nutriment  of  the  young. 

A  fourth  form  of  insect  is  also  found  in  the  termites' 
nest,  known  as  the  "  Soldier."  The  head  is  much  larger 
and  the  jaws  are  much  longer  and  stronger  than  thoM- 
of  the  worker,  and  the  sole  function  appears  to  be  to 
Both  soldier  and  worker,  apparently,  proceed  from  the 


same  eggs  which  produce  the  king  and  queen,   the  difference  in  development  being  pn.bably 
due  —  as  in  the  hive-bee  —  to  the  character  of  the  food  with  which  the  young  are  supplied. 


HM>  «t  it:  r.  ru.f>,  F.Z.I. 

TERMITES 

T*t  ft'/ict  mil,  **4ftma!t  trt  v>ii,[fj,  ,k,  ••  •u^trr"  and  ,k,",clJicr 


mort  IHt  [r*k,  ,kan  ftrf,,,  imtcl, 


Thole  k,  If.  Sa-uilll-Kint.   F.Z.  ?.~\ 


TERMITES'     NESTS    IN    QUEENSLAND 

Tht.it  nests  are  sometimes  14  or  Jj  feet  high 


[Milferd-en-Sta 


Phai  fy  If.  Stvilli-Kttit,  F.Z.S. 


• 

TERMITES'     NEST    IN     QUEENSLAND 

The  smaller  nests,  -when  opened  and  emptied,  are  used  by  the  natives  as  ovens 


300      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


riui,  tf  if. 


[Milf.rJ-.n-S.* 


TERMITES    AT    WORK 

Tkit  tkmut  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  wood-eating  injects,  nearly  cf  the  natural  six* 


In  a  state  of  nature  termites  are  undoubtedly  beneficial.  They  are  scavengers,  in  fact, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  remove  the  dead  and  decaying  wood  which  would  otherwise  encumber  the 
ground  for  many  years.  But  in  civilised  districts  they  arc  extremely  mischievous,  books, 
furniture,  and  all  the  woodwork  of  houses  being  often  completely  destroyed  by  them  before 
their  presence  is  even  suspected. 

The  second  division  of  the  order  also  forms  two  well-marked  groups  —  namely,  the  Flat- 
winged  Insects,  in  which  the  wings  are  fully  spread,  horizontally  or  obliquely,  even  in  repose, 
and  the  Hairy-winged  Insects,  in  which  those  organs  can  be  folded  longitudinally,  like  the 
joints  of  a  fan. 

Of  the  former  group,  the  ANT-LION  of  Southern  Europe  is  a  familiar  example.  The 
perfect  insect  is  seldom  seen,  owing  to  its  nocturnal  habits.  In  appearance  it  is  not  unlike 
a  small  and  delicately  built  dragon-fly,  with  a  yellowish  head,  a  black  body,  and  ^transparent 
wings  marbled  with  brownish  spots.  The  larva,  however,  is  terrestrial,  and  lives  in  a  funnel- 
shaped  pitfall  which  it  scoops  out  in  the  sand,  always  working  backwards  in  a  spiral  direction, 
and  jerking  out  the  sand  with  its  broad  head  in  an  almost  continuous  shower.  Having 
completed  the  excavation,  it  buries  itself  at  the  bottom  with  merely  the  tips  of  its  jaws 
appearing  above  the  surface,  and  there  waits  for  ants  or  other  small  creatures  t<>  fall  down  the 
sloping  sides,  accelerating  their  descent,  if  need  be,  by  flinging  sand  upon  them.  The  si/e  of 
the  pit  varies  with  that  of  the  insect,  the  fully  grown  grub  digging  clown  to  the  depth  of 
about  2  inches,  while  the  cavity  is  about  3  inches  in  diameter. 

The  mouth  of  the  ant-lion  grub  is  very  curiously  constructed,  the   jaws  lying  in  a  gr< 
on    the    inner   margin    of  the    mandibles,   or   jaws  proper;    BO    that   while    an    ins, ,  t    N    held 
prisoner    by  the  latter,  the  former  can  be  employed    in   sucking   its  juices.      When  the  body 
of  the  victim    has   been  completely  drained,  the  empty  >kin    is  thr.iwn  out  of  the  pit    by  a 
jerk  of  the  head. 

The  chrysalis,  too,  is  remarkable  for  possessing  jaws,  by  means  of  which  it  cuts  its  way 


NERVE-WINGED    OR    LACE-WINGED    INSECTS        301 


• 


out  of  the  cocoon  which   it  made,  when  a  larva,  by  spinning  grains  of  sand  together  with  silken 
threads. 

In  some  South  European  and  African  insects  allied  to  the  ant-lions  the  hind  wings  are 
modified  into  extremely  long  and  slender  shafts,  slightly  expanded  at  the  extremities.  In 
an  Indian  species  belonging  to  a 
related  genus  these  wings  are  scarcely 
more  than  threads,  and  bear  a  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  the  attenuated 
limbs  of  certain  gnats.  One  group, 
of  which  a  Japanese  species  is  .a 
w.eil-known  representative,  is  char- 
acterised by  the  long,  slender,  and 
clubbed  antennae. 

The  MANTIS-FLIES  are  remark- 
able for  the  structure  of  the  fore 
limbs,  which  are  almost  exactly 
similar  in  character  to  those  of  the 
praying-mantis.  The  upper  segment 
of  the  leg  is  so  lengthened  as  to  look 
like  an  additional  joint ;  the  lower 
surface  of  the  thigh  is  armed  with  a 
number  of  long,  sharp  spines ;  and 
the  tibia,  or  lower  part  of  the  leg, 


r,  F.  7..  ?. 

TERMITES- 


NEST 


Showing  one  year' s  reconstruction  to  nest,  of  ivhich  the  photographtr  made  a  section 


folds  closely  down  upon  it,  after  the 

manner  of  the  blade  of  a  clasp-knife. 

These  limbs  are  used  for  seizing,  an  insect  which  is  once  grasped  being  effectually  prevented 

by  the  spines  from  breaking  away. 

The  larvae  of  these  insects  are  parasitic  in  the  nests  of  tree-wasps  and  spiders,  and  have 
the  peculiarity  of  practically  losing  their  limbs  as  they  approach  maturity;  so  that  while  at 
first  they  are  free  and  active,  they  afterwards  become  almost  as  helpless  as  those  of  many 
beetles.  One  species  is  found  in  Southern  Europe,  the  remainder  being  widely  distributed 

over  the  hotter  regions  of  the  globe. 

Allied  to  the  Mantis-flies  are  the  curious  SNAKE- 
FLIES,  or  CAMEL-FLIES.  In  these  insects  the  head  is 
very  large,  and  is  attached  to  the  thorax,  or  central 
division  of  the  body,  by  a  long  and  distinct  neck, 
which  allows  it  great  freedom  of  motion.  The  neck 
is  usually  raised  and  the  head  bent  down,  giving  to 
the  insect  a  remarkably  snake-like  appearance. 

These  flies  are  predaceous  in  their  habits,  and  the 
four  British  species  may  be  found  on  the  banks  of 
ponds  and  small  streams,  where  they  can  obtain 
insect-victims  in  plenty.  The  larvae  live  beneath  the 
bark  of  trees,  and  wriggle  about  in  a  singularly 
serpentine  fashion. 

Equally  curious  in  a  different  way  are  the 
SCORPION-FLIES,  in  which  the  body  is  prolonged  into 
a  slender  three-jointed  process,  the  extremity  of  which,  in  the  male,  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  curved  forceps.  In  spite  of  their  somewhat  formidable  appearance  these  insects 
are  perfectly  harmless.  They  are  very  plentiful  almost  everywhere,  and  may  be  found  in 
numbers  on  any  sunny  summer  morning  resting  on  the  herbage  on  hedge-banks,  or  running 
actively  about  on  the  leaves  of  low  bushes.  Like  the  Snake-flies,  they  are  predaceous,  feeding 

20 


j 


Phott  bj  H'.  T. 


F.Z.S. 


SCORPION-FLY 

Remarkable  for  the  curious  structure  of  the  end  of  the  body 


302       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

entirely  upon  other  insects,  and  often  attacking  those  which  arc  bigger  and  apparently  stronger 
than  themselves.  The  eggs  are  laid  underground,  and  the  grubs,  which  are  entirely  subter- 
ranean in  their  habits,  feed  upon  decomposing  vegetable  matter.  When  fully  fed,  they  burrow 
still  deeper  into  the  ground,  and  there  change  into  pupa:,  from  which  the  perfect  insects  emerge 
about  a  fortnight  later.  In  the  common  Knglish  species  the  body  is  shining  black,  and  the  legs 
are  yellow,  while  the  transparent  wings  arc  marked  with  brown  spots,  which  generally  form 
three  broken  transverse  bands.  The  insect  is  about  half  an  inch  in  length. 

Certain  allied  insects  have  very  slender  bodies  and  long  legs,  and  might  easily  be  mistaken 
for  "  daddy-long-legs  "  by  any  one  who  failed  to  notice  the  presence  of  two  pairs  of  wings.  A 
species  found  in  Southern  Kurope  is  reddish  yellow  in  colour,  with  a  brown  thorax  and  yellowish 
wings.  It  has  a  curious  habit  of  suspending  itself  from  a  twig  by  its  fore  legs,  and  seizing  any 
flying  insect  which  may  come  within  reach  with  the  middle  and  hinder  pairs. 


»^ 

'•• 


••.>- 


,-iui.  4r  u:  r. 

ADULT    FORM    OF    ANT-LION 

Tkt  gruk  cftlkii  insect  livei  in  imal!  fits  in  lonely  placet,  anJfeeJi  up™  lie  ants,  etc.,  which  roll  Jovin  the  ihfing  lijet 

Allied  to  the  foregoing  is  the  extraordinary  little  snow-insect,  which  maki-s  its  appear- 
ance in  mid-winter,  and  may  even  be  found  crawling  on  the  surface  of  snow.  In  gi-iu-r.il 
appearance  it  is  not  unlike  a  larval  grasshopper,  with  very  long,  slender  legs,  and  antenn.e 
of  about  the  same  length  as  the  body.  There  is  also  a  well-devrloprd  beak.  Tin-  wings  are 
quite  rudimentary  in  the  female,  while  even  in  the  male-  they  are  so  short  .is  to  be  perfectly 
useless  for  flight.  The  insect  is  remarkably  active,  nevertheless,  and  possesses  the  power  of 
leaping,  although  the  hinder  thighs  are  not  developed  in  any  great  degree.  In  colour  it  is 
metallic  green,  with  the  beak,  antenna-,  legs,  wings,  and  ovipositor  ru>ty  red.  It  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  north  of  Kngland  and  Scotland. 

l-'.ir   in  rally   distributed    is   the   I. At T\\  i\< ; -I  l.V,   or    GOLDEN-EYE,  which   may  be 

;i   almost   anywhere   on    warm   summer  evenings    Hitting  slowly   to   and    fro   in   the  twilight. 

During  the  daytime  it  may  often  be  found  resting  upon  fences,   or  sitting  on   the  leaves  of  low 


NERVE-WINGED     OR     LACE-WINGED     INSECTS       303 


plants.  In  colour  it  is  pale  green,  with  a  peculiar  milky  appearance,  and  the  eyes  glow  as 
though  lighted  by  an  inward  fire.  The  wings  are  so  closely  and  elaborately  veined  that 
they  look  like  a  piece  of  the  most  delicate  lace-work.  It  is  not  advisable  to  handle  the  insect, 
for,  although  perfectly  harmless,  it  possesses  the  power  of  pouring  out  from  its  body  a  liquid 
of  the  most  horrible  odour,  which  clings  to  the  fingers  in  spite  of  repeated  ablutions. 

The  life-history  of  the  lacewing-fly  is  very  curious.  When  the  maternal  insect  lays  her 
eggs,  she  first  deposits  a  drop  of  a  highly  glutinous  fluid  upon  a  leaf  or  slender  twig,  and 
then,  with  an  upward  jerk  of  her  long  body,  draws  it  out  into  a  slender  thread.  On  contact 
with  the  air  this  thread  immediately  hardens,  and  just  as  she  releases  her  hold  the  fly  attaches 
a  single  egg  to  the  tip.  In  this  way  200  or  300  eggs  are  laid  together  in  a  little  cluster, 
which  looks  just  like  a  tiny  patch  of  moss.  In  the  earlier  botanical  manuals,  indeed,  it  was 
actually,  named,  figured,  and  described  as  a  moss. 

The  grubs  which  hatch  out  from  these  eggs  feed  upon  plant-lice,  of  which  they  devour 
vast  numbers,  draining  the  juices  by  means  of  their 
hollow,  jaws,  and  then  fastening  the  empty  skins  on 
their  own  backs,  as  an  American  Indian  might  decorate 
himself  with  the  scalps  of  his  victims.  Owing  to  this 
singular  habit,  the  grub  becomes  perfectly  unrecognis- 
able after  the  first  few  days  of  its  life,  only  the  jaws  and 
feet  being  visible  beneath  the  pile  of  dry  skins.  When 
fully  fed,  it  changes  to  the  pupal  condition  in  a  silken 
cocoon,  which  it  attaches  to  a  leaf,  and  the  perfect  insect 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  course  of  a  few  days. 

The  ALDER-FLIES,  in  general  appearance,  are  not 
unlike  caddis-flies,  but  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  the 
fact  that  the  wings  are  not  longitudinally  folded  while  at 
rest.  They  are  very  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
ponds  and  small  streams,  where  they  may  be  seen  flying 
slowly  and  heavily,  or  resting  on  low  herbage  or  the  foliage 
of  trees  and  bushes.  The  female  insect  lays  her  eggs  in 
clusters  of  300  or  400  on  the  leaves  of  water-plants, 
and  the  little  grubs  make  their  way  down  into  the  water 
immediately  on  hatching  out,  where  they  creep  about  on 
the  mud  at  the  bottom  in  search  of  the  tiny  creatures  on 
which  they  feed.  When  full-grown,  they  are  about  an 
inch  in  length.  They  then  leave  the  water  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  earth,  where  they  change  to  pupae, 
the  perfect  insects  emerging  in  June  or  July. 

The  CADDIS-FLIES,  of  which  there  are  many  British  representatives,  belong  to  the  Hairy- 
winged  group.  The  larvae  of  these  insects  are  entirely  aquatic,  and  remind  one  of  hermit-crabs, 
the  front  part  of  the  body  being  clothed  with  horny  armour,  while  the  hinder  part  is  entirely 
unprotected.  In  order  to  escape  the  attacks  of  predaceous  insects  these  grubs  construct  cases 
round  their  bodies,  which  they  drag  about  wherever  they  go.  In  one  or  two  instances, 
however,  the  case  is  attached  to  the  lower  surface  of  a  stone. 

The  materials  of  which  these  cases  are  made  vary  in  accordance  with  the  species.  In  one 
group,  for  instance,  they  consist  of  pieces  of  twigs  and  leaves,  cut  into  short  lengths,  and  arranged 
side  by  side  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  spiral  band.  The  larva  of  another  kind  uses  entire 
leaves,  gluing  them  firmly  together  and  living  between  them.  A  third  species  employs  grains  of 
sand  and  tiny  stones,  which  it  arranges  in  the  form  of  a  cow's  horn.  Most  curious  of  all,  however, 
is  the  case  of  a  caddis-fly  which  is  made  entirely  of  the  shells  of  water-snails.  As  these  shells  are, 
as  a  rule,  still  tenanted  by  their  owners,  the  snails  may  sometimes  be  seen  attempting  to  crawl 
simultaneously  in  half  a  dozen  different  directions,  while  the  grub  is  dragging  them  in  a  seventh. 


Pnilo  t.  If.  P.  DanJt,  T.Z.S.,  Ktfinl's  Part 

LARGE    CADDIS-FLY 

The  largest  species  measures  abcut  an  inch  and  a  half 
across  the  tvings 


304       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

All  the  grubs  retain  tight  hold  of  their  cases  by  means  of  a  pincer-like  organ  at  the  end 
of  the  body.  When  fully  fed,  they  close  the  aperture  at  each  end  of  the  tube,  and  assume 
the  chrysalis  state,  the  perfect  insects  emerging  a  few  weeks  later.  Although  the  wings  are  large 
and  broad,  they  fly  very  slowly,  and  never  seem  to  take  more  than  a  short  journey  through  the 
air.  They  may  often  be  seen  in  numbers  resting  upon  the  herbage  on  the  banks  of  streams 
and  ponds,  or  crawling  down  into  the  water  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs. 


f 


- 


STINGIM;  FOUR-WINCED  INSECTS,  OR  ANTS,  BEES  AND  WASPS,  AND  THEIR  ALLII  s 

BV  W.    F.  kIRBY,   F.L.S. 

THE  order  of  insects  to  which  the  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps 
belong  includes  a  very  large  number  of  species.  All  these  .in- 
provided  with  four  membranous  wings,  alike  in  consistency,  and 
provided  with  comparatively  few  nervures.  The  wings  are 
usually  of  small  size,  as  compared  with  the  dimensions  of  the 
insects,  but  are  very  powerful,  owing  to  the  fore  and  hind 
pair  being  connected  together  during  flight  by  a  series  of  little 
links;  and  the  flight  of  the  insects  is  usually  very  rapid. 
These  insects  pass  through  a  perfect  metamorphosis,  the  pupa 
being  always  inactive;  the  jaws  are  provided  with  mandibles, 
though  a  proboscis,  or  sucking-tube,  is  also  present,  and  the 
abdomen  of  the  female  is  armed  with  an  ovipositor,  or  boring 
instrument,  which  is  frequently  modified  into  a  powerful  sting, 
used  to  deposit  the  eggs  in  their  proper  position.  One  pecu- 
liarity is  that  several  species  of  ants,  bees,  and  wasps  live  in 
large  communities,  in  which  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants,  on 
whom  most  of  the  work  of  the  nest  falls,  are  imperfectly  developed  and  usually  sterile  females, 
called  neuters,  or  workers.  This  arrangement  is  also  met  with  in  the  White  Ants,  which 
belong  to  the  order  of  Lace-winged  Insects.  Among  both  the  Ants  and  White  Ants  the  neuters 


J 


One  if  ike  comwunea  of  tke  larger  Britiik 

iftfiei  ii  *  klactiih  kairy  inucl,  mtaiur.ng 

ratter  more  than  an  inck  in  expanu, 

iLtlk  trantfarent  ii-ingt  bordered 


w.  r.  Di*d>,  r.z.s. 
SAW-FLV 


are  unprovided  with  wings ;  but  these  organs  are 
present  in  the  fully  developed  males  and  females, 
though  soon  cast. 

A  great  variety  of  other  insects  also  belong  to 
this  order,  such  as  Saw-flies,  Gall-flies,  and  an  immense 
number  of  parasitic  species,  generally  called  Ichneu- 
mon-flies, among  which  are  some  of  the  smallest 
insects  known. 

This  extensive  order  of  insects  is  divided  into  two 
principal  sections  —  those  in  which  the  ovipositor  is 
used  as  a  saw  or  an  auger,  and  those  in  which  it  is 
modified  into  a  sting.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
sections  of  the  Borers  includes  the  S.\\V-FI.IKS,  in 
which  the  boring  instrument  is  modified  into  a  pair 
of  toothed  saws,  which  are  used  for  cutting  incisions 
in  leaves,  or  in  the  tender  bark  of  twigs,  in  which 
to  deposit  the  eggs.  These  flics  have  four  transparent 
wings,  sometimes  stained  with  yellow  or  purple,  and 
their  bodies  are  moderately  stout  and  obtuse,  and 
generally  black,  red,  or  yellow.  The  antenn.i-  are  very 
variable  in  form,  and  are  sometimes  knolilx-d  at  tin- 
end  like  tho-r  "f  .1  Initt'Ttly ;  sometimes  they  arc 
formed  of  a  number  of  long,  slender  joints;  some- 


MARHI.K   I;AI.I.-FI.Y    AND  C;ALL 

Found  on  oak,  and  nsi   unlike   ike  foreign  gall  uteJ  for 
making   ink 


STINGING    FOUR-WINGED    INSECTS 


305 


. 


fhclo  by  W.  P.  Hand',  F.Z.S. 

TREE-WASP 

ry  similar  to  the  common  ivasf>t  hut  builds 
its  nest  in  trees  instead  of  in  the  ground 


times  of  only  three  —  a  moderately  long  basal  one,  a  short 
middle  one,  and  a  long  terminal  one,  composed  of  a  number 
of  joints  united  into  one;  and  rarely,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
males  of  some  small  species  about  half  an  inch  long  which 
feed  on  fir  and  pine,  the  antennae  are  feathered.  The  grubs 
are  very  like  caterpillars,  and  are  sometimes  called  "  false 
caterpillars  "  ;  but  a  true  caterpillar  (except  in  one  or  two  very 
rare  exceptions  among  foreign  species)  has  never  more  than 
sixteen  legs,  while  these  "  false  caterpillars  "  have  more,  often 
as  many  as  twenty-two.  They  also  resemble  caterpillars  in 
another  way,  for  the  pupa;  are  enclosed  in  cocoons.  One 
interesting  Australian  species,  which  feeds  on  gum-trees,  pro- 
ceeds from  a  black  caterpillar  with  only  six  legs.  The  perfect  insect  has  a  blackish  head  and 
thorax,  with  three  large  yellow  spots  on  the  latter,  yellowish  antennas  and  wings,  and  a  green 
abdomen ;  it  measures  about  an  inch  and  a  half  across  the  wings,  and  has  knobbed  antennae. 
An  allied  species,  found  in  Tasmania,  is  said  to  tend  its  young  larvae  —  an  unusual  habit,  except 
among  social  insects  like  bees,  wasps,  and  ants.  Among  the  commonest  and  the  most  destructive 
saw-flies  in  England  are  those  feeding  upon  the  currant,  gooseberry,  and  pear,  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  measuring  about  half  an  inch  across  the  wings.  The  commonest  flies  which  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  gooseberry  and  currant  are  yellow,  with  the  head,  antennae,  and  three  long  spots 
on  the  back  black,  and  the  wings  transparent,  with  black  veins.  The  grubs  are  bluish  green,  with 
twenty  legs,  and  numerous  black  dots  ;  and  several  may  often  be  seen  on  one  leaf.  The  best-known 
of  the  PEAR  SAW-FLIES  is  black,  with  the  wings  transparent,  except  the  veins ;  the  grub  is  very 
like  a  slug,  and  is  green  or  yellow,  very  slimy,  with  the  front  of  the  body  much  thickened. 

The  WOOD-WASPS  include  only  a  few  species,  the  grubs  of  which  live  in  the  stems  of 
plants,  or  in  the  solid  wood  of  trees.  One  of  the  largest  feeds  on  fir-  or  pine-trees,  and  the 
fly  measures  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  varies  much  in  size,  though 
the  male  is  generally  much  smaller  than  the  female.  The  female  is  yellow,  with  two  black 

bands,  and  a  stout  ovi- 


Fhola  by  Schilaitii  Phut.  C».] 


TREE-WASP'S    NEST 

Generally  built  in  a  thick  bush 


positor  half  as  long  as 
the  abdomen.  In  the 
male  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men is  black,  and  ends  in 
a  rectangular  point.  The 
wings  are  transparent, 
with  yellow  nervures. 

Next  to  these  in- 
sects come  the  GALL- 
FLIES,mostof  which  pro- 
duceroundgallsonoaks; 
and  in  some  species  we 
meet  with  a  wingless 
brood,  living  alternately 
with  the  winged  broods, 
but  at  the  roots  of  the 
trees  instead  of  in  the 
open  air.  The  veining 
of  the  wings  is  reduced 
to  one  or  two  veins ; 
the  antennae  are  rather 
long, and  not  angulated  ; 
and  the  abdomen  is 


3<>6     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


«J>,  F.Z.  •,.] 


PINE-BORING    WASP    (FEMALE) 

Formidable  in  appearance,  but  yi.iie  karmlta 


short,  and  constricted  at  the  base.  The  flies  seldom  measure  more  than  half  an  inch  across  the 
wings.  SOUK-  galls  are  hard,  like  the  one  found  on  the  Turkey  oak,  from  which  ink  is  made: 
while  others  are  large  and  juicy,  resembling  cherries,  or  small  apples,  among  which  is  the 
so-called  apple  of  Sodom.  Others,  like  the  Hedeguar,  which  is  found  on  roses,  have  a  mo— y 
appearance.  The  latter  arc  produced  by  a  small  black  sa\v-fly,  with  part  of  th<-  md. 

in  the  female,  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  red 
beneath. 

Some  of  the  smaller  gall-flies  do  not  pro- 
duce galls,  but  are  parasitic  on  other  ins. 
but  galls  are  very  liable  to  the  parasitic  att 
of  other  insects,  especially  to  those  of  small 
brilliant  metallic  green  four-winged  flies,  belong- 
ing to  an  allied  family,  with  very  few  ncrvuivs, 
but   with    a   black  membranous   spot   on    the 
front  edge  of  the    fore  wings,  and  angulatcd 
antenna?.     Many  galls  do  not  begin  to  grow 
until  the  larva  is  hatched  and  begins  to  eat. 

\\  e  now  come  to  five  or  six  families  of 
parasitic  species,  popularly  called  IriiM'.i  MI>\- 
FIJKS,  and  immensely  numerous  and  varied. 
There  are  probably  considerably  over  2,000 
species  in  England  alone ;  but  they  are  com- 
paratively little  known  or  studied.  Sen 
these  have  beautifully  delicate  wings,  fringed 
with  long  bristles,  and  are  among  the  smallest  insects  known,  being  of  quite  microscopic 
dimensions.  These  are  parasitic  on  the  eggs  of  various  insects,  and  some  are  aquatic.  Hut 
the  more  typical  ichneumon-flies  are  of  larger  size,  often  measuring  more  than  an  inch  across 
the  wings.  Their  bodies  are  usually  black  or  yellow,  and  there  is  often  an  irregularly  shaped 
space  in  the  middle  of  the  fore  wing,  where  the  veins  of  the  wing  converge.  In  these 
flies  the  ovipositor  is  very  short;  but  in  others  it  is  of  great  length,  especially  in  the  case 
of  the  largest  British  insect  of  this  group,  which  is 
parasitic  on  the  larvae  of  the  great  black-and-yellow 
wood-wasp,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  This 
parasite  is  as  large  as  the  wood-wasp,  but  much  more 
slender;  it  is  black,  with  red  legs,  and  two  white  dots 
on  each  segment  of  the  abdomen.  The  ovipositor,  which 
looks  like  three  black  threads,  is  as  long  as  the  whole 
body. 

The  numerous  parasites  of  which  we  have  spoken 
usually  deposit  their  eggs  in  punctures  in  the  bodies 
of  caterpillars  or  other  immature  insects,  which  the  grubs 
devour  from  within  during  the  life  of  their  victim, 
leaving  it  to  die  when  they  themselves  have  reached 
their  full  growth.  «-• 

Intermediate  between  the  boring  and  stinging  insects         PINK-BORIN<;    \v/\sl'    (MAI.K) 

of  this  order  Comes   the  small  family  of  the    Kl   IIV-TAII  KD        Smaller  ,ta,,  it,  fema.'r,  anJverj •J,/e,enti<i  app,  . 

l-'l  \\  ^.      I  liese  are  brilliantly  coloured  bron/e-red,  blue, 

or  green  metallic  four-winged  Ilies,  with  the  thorax  covered  with  large  depressions,  and  the 
abdomen  smooth,  and  usually  composed,  as  seen  from  above,  of  one  large,  smooth  joint,  ami 
one  or  tuo  much  smaller  coarsely  punctured  one-,  beyond  it,  the  list  ending  in  a  variable 
number  of  short  teeth.  They  roll  themselves  up  in  ;i  ball  \\hen  alarmed,  and  are  parasites, 
-•siting  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  inserts.  An  entomologist  once  saw  a  ruby-t.i 


STINGING    FOUR-WINGED    INSECTS 


307 


Fhol,  ir  W.  f.  Dand>,  F.Z.S.]  [Rtgtnl'i  far'u 

ICHNEUMON-FLY 

One  of  the  largest  species  of  a  very  extensive  group  of  para- 
sitic insects 


fly  hurled   to  the  ground   by  a  mason -bee  which 

had   built   her   nest  in   a   hole  in   a  wall.     The   fly 

rolled  herself  up  into  a  ball,  when  the  bee  bit  off 

her  wings,   and   then   flew  away.     But   as  soon   as 

she  was    gone    the  wingless  fly    stretched    herself 

out   again,   and   climbed    up  the  wall  to   the  bee's 

nest  to  deposit  her  eggs. 

The    group    of    stinging    insects     begins   with 

the  ANTS,  which  are  probably  the  most  intelligent 

animals  now  living  in  the  world.     Different  species, 

however,  differ   very   much    in    their  manners   and 

customs,  and  in  the  grade  of  civilisation  to  which 

they  have  attained.     Some  of  the  more  industrious 

among  them  keep  other  insects  as   cattle,  and  even 

as  pets ;   others  harvest  grain,  while  a  few  species 

cultivate  grain  for  their  own  use ;   and  others  make 

large   mushroom-beds  of   comminuted   leaves,  and 

thus    do    great    harm  to   cultivated  trees    in   many 

parts  of  tropical  America.      When  the  industrious 

ants  are  not  too  busy,  they  sometimes  indulge  in 

sports  and  pastimes.     But  there  are  some  species 

which  live  in  idle  communities.     Such  ants  are  only 

energetic  as  marauders,  and  are  so  degraded  that 

they   cannot  even    feed  themselves,   and   starve  to 

death  if  they  are  deprived  of  the  services  of  their 

black  slaves,  which  have  been  carried  off  as  pupae 

by  the  others  in  piratical  raids,  and  brought  up  by  other  slaves,  which  do  all  the  work  in  the 

nests  of  their  captors. 

Quitting  the  Ants,  we  arrive  at  a  rather  extensive  series  of  insects  of  moderate  or  con- 
siderable size,  and  with  very  spiny  legs,  called  BURROWING-WASPS.    They  are  brightly  coloured, 

active   insects,  and   generally  dig  holes   in  the   ground,  which  they  provision  with   caterpillars, 

grasshoppers,  or  spiders,  which  they  paralyse  with  their  stings,  and  leave  in  a  moribund  condition 

to  form  the  food  of  their  progeny.     They  are  generally  winged  in  both  sexes,  but  in  one  family 

the  females  are  stout  and  very  hair}-,  and  look  like  large  hairy  ants,  while  the  males  are  slender 

winged  insects,   very  unlike  their  partners.     In  the  burrowing-wasps  the  front  of  the  thorax, 

or  second  division  of  the  body,  is  usually  transverse,  and  often  narrow ;   but  in  the  TRUE  WASPS 

it  bends  back  to   the  wings.       Among  these  latter  it  is  only  the  small  group  of  the  SOCIAL 

WASPS  which  are  gregarious,  and  among  which  we  find  workers  as  well  as  males  and  females. 

The  largest  of  the  British  wasps  is  the  HORNET ;   but  there  are  several  much  larger  species  in 

the  East   Indies, -some  of  which  are  black  and  yellow,  like  the  Chinese  MANDARIN-WASP,  the 
___^____  largest    of    all,    which     often    measures     2    inches    across    the 

wings.  Others  are  black,  with  one  large  reddish  band  on 
the  abdomen.  Their  nests,  which  they  construct  of  a  kind 

fe    «  \*/  of    paper,     are     formed     in     a     hole     in     the     ground,     in    a 

(W  /7B\\          hollow    tree,  or    in    a    bush,  or    under    the    eaves  of  a    house. 

A  nest  is  commenced  by  a  single  female  which  has  survived 
the  winter,  and  is  afterwards  enlarged  by  the  exertions  of 
her  progeny. 

The  last  group  in  this  order  are  the  BEES.  They 
may  generally  be  easily  recognised  by  their  shaggy  bodies 
and  legs.  As  with  the  Wasps,  most  species  are  solitary, 

The  largest  species  "  .   .  _ 

found  in  Britain      or   live   in   very   small   communities.     Some    few  are    smooth, 


Phctti  by  W.  P.  Danda,  F.Z.S. 

WOOD-ANT 


RUBY-TAILED 
FLY 

Generally  of  a  bi  iJfiant 
metallic  green  or  blue 


308     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


Hutu  ti   If.  f.  flj.J.,  F.Z.S.,  K,ttml'i  fft 

SOLITARY    ANT 
(MALE)  (FEMALE) 

Net  a  true  tnt,  k*t  t  turrnuing-viatf,  btlintd 
n  kt  faraaric  i*  tki  fitti  ef  ktmkU-btti 


and  more  or  less  metallic.  A  photograph  of  a  large  and 
beautiful  South  American  species  appears  in  the  Coloured 
Plate.  The  largest  British  bees  are  the  stout-bodied  HuMBLE- 
BEES,  or  Bu.MBLE-BEES,  which  are  generally  yellow,  more  or 
less  banded  with  black,  or  else  black  with  a  red  tail.  They 
form  a  small  nest  of  cells  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground  in  meadows.  A  common  European  species,  not  found 
in  England,  is  the  large  black,  violet-winged  C'AKITM  I.K-IH  i  , 
which  makes  its  nest  in  a  gallery  burrowed  in  a  post,  where 
there  is  a  separate  compartment  for  each  grub. 

There  are  only  a  few  species  belonging  to  the  TRUE  HIVK- 
BEES  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  They  can  always  be 
distinguished  from  any  of  the  SOLITARY  BEES,  some  of  which 

much  resemble  them,  by  having  a  single  long,  narrow  cell,  about  four  time?  as  long  as  broad, 

running  along  the  front  edge  of  the  fore  wing.     In  the  solitary  bees  the  corresponding  cell 

is  much  broader  and  shorter,  rarely  more  than  one  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  broad,  and 

only  occupying  a  small  portion  of  the  front  edge  of  the  wing. 

Hive-bees  have  always  been  looked  upon  with  more  interest  than  most  other  insects,  both 

on  account  of  the  valuable  products  of  honey  and  wax  which  they  produce,  and  because  of 

their  remarkable  habits.     They  are    probably  less  intelligent  than  ants,  but   they  are  larger; 

and  as  all  classes  of  their  adult    population    are  winged  insects,  and    have   been   kept    in   a 

domesticated  or  semi-domesticated  state  for  many  centuries,  they  have  lent  themselves  more 

readily  to  observation. 

The  hive-bees  live  in  very  large  communities,  and  in  a  state  of  nature  they  make  their 

nests  in  hollow  trees  or  in  crevices  of  rocks,  where  they  build  their  waxen  cells,  store  their 

honey,  and  rear  their  young.     There  are. three  classes  among  them,  —  the  queen-bee,  the  fi-inak- 

and  the  mother  of  the  hive;   the  male,  or  drone;  and  the  neuter,  or  worker,  which  is  really 

an  imperfectly  developed  and  usually  sterile  female.      Like  other  insects,  bees  pass  through 

a  metamorphosis,  which  in  their  case  is  of  the  description  called  "complete,"  for  the  immature 

forms  of  the  bee  show   no   resemblance  whatever  to  the  winged   insect  which  will   finally  IK- 

perfected.     Every  bee  commences  its  life  in  the  form  of  an  egg.     Each    egg  is   laid  by  the 

queen-bee  in  a  separate  cell,  and  in  a  few  days  the  egg  hatches  into  a  white  footless  maggot, 

which  is  carefully  tended  by  the  workers,  and  fed 

by  them  with  a  preparation  secreted  by  the  bees, 

which  is  carefully  graduated,  not  only  according 

to   the   age    of    the    grub,    but    is    differently 

constituted  according  to  the  sex  and  status  of 

the  bee;  for  it  is  well  known  that  it  is  in  the 

power  of  the  workers 'to  develop  a  young  grub 

which  would  otherwise  become  a  sterile  worker 

into  a  perfect    queen-bee,  by   placing   it   in  a 

large  cell,  and  rearing  it  on  the  same  nourishing 

food  which    is  supplied  to  those  grubs   which 

are  intended  to  become  perfect  queens.      When 

the   grub  is  full-grown,  it  spins  itself  a  small 

silken  cocoon,  and  becomes  a  pupa,  or  nymph, 

as  it  is  called.      The  pupa  somewhat  resembles 

a  swathed  mummy,  for  all  the  external  portions 

of  the  future  bee  can  be  seen  outlined  in   the 

hard  casing  which  encloses  it.     As  soon   as  it 

arrives    at    maturity,    it    makes    its    way   out 

through   the   upper  end,  when   the   cell  is   at  HORNET 


STINGING    FOUR-WINGED    INSECTS 


309 


once  prepared  by  the  other  bees  for  a  fresh  occupant.  The 
newly  born  bee  is  at  first  moist,  flabby,  and  pale-coloured ; 
but  in  a  few  hours  her  skin  dries  and  hardens,  when  she  at  once 
commences  her  life-long  labours,  at  first  tending  the  young  bees 
and  doing  other  necessary  duties  in  the  hive,  and  then,  a  fort- 
night later,  going  forth  with  her  companions  to  collect  honey 
and  pollen  in  the  meadows  and  gardens. 

There  is  never  room  for  more  than  one  queen-bee  in 
a  hive ;  and  the  queens,  which  may  be  recognised  by  their 
longer  bodies  and  shorter  wings,  have  such  a  mortal  hatred 
of  each  other  that,  whenever  two  of  them  meet,  they  will 
fight,  if  permitted,  until  one  is  killed.  But  in  summer,  when 
young  bees  are  hatching  daily  in  large  numbers,  and  the  hive 
is  getting  over-populated,  the  workers  do  not  permit  the 
queens  to  fight;  and  finally  one  of  them  (usually  the  old 
queen  in  the  first  instance)  works  herself  up  into  a  great 
flurry,  and  rushes  out  of  the  hive,  attended  by  several  hundred 
followers,  to  seek  for  fresh  fields  and  pastures  new.  This  is 
called  "swarming";  and  a  strong  hive  will  often  throw  off  as 
many  as  four  or  five  swarms  in  the  course  of  the  summer. 
It  is  then  the  object  of  the  bee-keeper  to  get  the  queen  to 
enter  a  new  hive,  for  otherwise  the  swarm  may  fly  to  a 
distance  and  be  lost;  but  wherever  the  queen-bee  takes  up 
her  abode,  her  companions  will  assemble  round  her,  and  at 
once  commence  the  work  of  building  combs  and  storing  up 
honey. 

The  drone,  or  male  bee,  is  rather  larger  than  the  worker, 

and  has  a 
more  o  b- 


L  i 

Phol,  b,  If.  P.  Dandt,  F.Z.S. 

HIVE-BEE 

(gUEEN,     WORKER,     AND      DRONED 

There  are  only  about  ten  or  tiuel-ve  kinds  of 
true  hive-bees  knoivn 


fha<  ty  B.  H.  B<ntl,y] 

BUMBLE-BEE 


ON    EVERLASTING-PEA 


Bumble-beet  make  their  nests  in  the  ground,  and  live  in  smaller  communi- 
ties than  the  hive-bee 


tuse    body. 

He  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  his 
long  thirteen-jointed  antennae,  or  feelers, 
for  the  antenna?  are  shorter  and  only 
twelve-jointed  in  the  queen  and  worker. 
There  are  several  hundred  drones  in  a  hive; 
but  the  queen  only  pairs  once  in  her  life, 
on  the  wing,  and  the  ceremony  is  im- 
by the  death  of  the 
have  no  sting,  for  the 
and  worker  is  really  a 
modified  ovipositor,  or  egg-laying  apparatus, 
analogous  to  the  organ  which  is  so  con- 
spicuous in  many  ichneumons  and  other 
insects  belonging  to  the  same  order  as  the 
bees.  In  the  autumn  the  unfortunate  drones 
are  all  massacred  or  else  driven  forth  from 
the  hive  by  the  workers,  when  they  speedily 
perish.  The  workers  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  bee-hive  ; 
there  may  be  many  thousands  of  them,  and 
their  number  appears  to  be  only  limited  by 
the  dimensions  of  the  hive  itself. 


mediately   followed 
drone.     The  drones 
sting  of  the   female 


310      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  ancients  had  observed  something  of  the  economy  of  bees,  but  many  of  their  ideas 
on  the  subject  were  strangely  fantastic.  It  was  perhaps  natural  to  suppose  that  the  leader  of 
the  bees  was  a  king  rather  than  a  queen ;  but  it  was  also  supposed  that  a  swarm  of  bees 
could  be  obtained  by  killing  an  ox  and  leaving  the  carcase  to  rot.  This  notion  appears  to  have 
originated  in  swarms  of  flies,  more  or  less  resembling  bees,  having  been  noticed  flying  round  or 
near  putrefying  carca- 

Among  all  the  truly  social  insects  —  i.e.  hive-bees,  wasps,  ants,  and  termites,  or  so-called 
white  ants  —  we  find  that  the  bulk  of  the  community  consists  of  sterile  females,  and  the  number 
of  fertile  females  is  very  small,  even  in  those  cases  where  more  than  one  female  is  permitted  to 
live  in  a  nest,  as  among  wasps. 


f 


flHI,  k,    C.    *llf\ 


\H-t-l-.K  .    V   .-,. 


BEES 

Swarming  f  ram  tkt  kivt  after  tki  queen 


HUMBLE-BEES  live  in  small  communities,  consisting  of  males,  females,  and  wooers;  but 
their  economy  is  very  simple  compared  with  that  of  the  hive-bee,  and  they  do  not  confine 
themselves  to  a  single  female  to  a  nest. 

The  S"l.IT\kY  Hi T.s  are  very  numerous  in  species,  and  coiiM-t  »nly  "f  males   and  feni. 
They  do    not    live    in    communities,    but    each    female    constructs    a    dwelling    for    her    own 
young.     Many  of  them   burrow   in    the   ground,   and    they   are   so    far   gregarious  that  a  l.r 
number  of  females  will   sometimes   form    their   burrows   near   earh    other   in    the   same   hank. 
The    solitary  bees  are  very  varied   in  their  habits,  and  M.HH-  of  them  are  parasitic  on  other 
specie  s. 

The  large  CAKIT.M  ru-i'.li>,  which  form  their  nests  in  wood,  are  not  Hritish  ;  but  there 
are  some  small  which  make  theirs  in  the  interior  of  bramble-sticks.  Some  are  very 

hairy;  others  are  smooth,  and  look  at  tir>t  sight  like  small   wasp-;,  being   handed  with  black  and 
yellow.      Hut  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most  conspicuous  of  the  solitary  species  is  the  |-Yl.\  • 
BEX,  which  U  a  hairy  species  much    resembling  a  small    huml>le-l><  e.    and    is   one   often    s   en    in 
abundanc'-  along  with  other  bees,  flying  round  sallow  blossoms  in  spring. 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


SCALE-WINGED  INSECTS,  OR  BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 

BY  W.  F.  KIRBY,  F.L.S. 

BUTTERFLIES  and  MOTHS  are  easily  distinguished  from  other  insects  by  many  very  obvious 
characters,  and  a  considerable  number  are  remarkable  for  the  beautiful  and  varied  colours  of 
their  wings.  These  are,  as  it  were,  tiled  with  overlapping  scales,  attached  to  the  membrane 
by  a  slender  stem  ;  hence  their  name,  Scale-winged  Insects.  These  scales  differ  very  much 
in  shape,  sometimes  being  long  and  slender,  and  almost  hair-like,  while  at  other  times  they 
are  widened  at  the  extremity,  like  a  battledore,  or  they  may  be  short  and  broad,  like  a  fan 
or  a  shovel.  Different  forms  of  scales  are  found  on  different  parts  of  the  wings  of  the  same 
insect;  and  some  forms  of  scale  are  peculiar  to  the  male,  as  are  usually  the  dense  tufts  of  scales 
found  on  the  fore  wings  of  the  Skipper  Butterflies,  and  on  the  hind  wings  of  the  Chrysippus 
Butterfly.  The  varied  colours  of  these  scales  are  due  partly  to  pigment,  interposed  between  the 
extremely  delicate  double  or  triple  tissues-  of  which  the  scales  are  composed  ;  or,  more  rarely,  to 
the  refraction  of  light  from  the  surface  of  the  scales  themselves,  or,  as  has  recently  been  stated, 
to  different  coloured  scales  alternating  so  that  the  varying  colours  are  visible  at  different  angles, 
as  in  the  metallic  "  shot "  colour  of  the  Purple  Emperor  Butterfly,  and  in  various  species 
found  in  South  America  and  other  countries.  In  the  case  of  the  Purple  Emperor,  and  in 
many  other  butterflies,  this  "shot"  colouring  is  confined  to  the  males.  Indeed,  as  a  rule, 
female  butterflies  and  moths  are  larger  than  the  males,  but  far  less  brilliantly  coloured  than 
their  mates.  There  are,  however,  many  species  in  which  the  sexes  differ  little  in  size  or 
colour;  but  it  only  rarely  happens  that  the  female  is  more  brightly  coloured  than  the  male. 

The  bodies  of  butterflies  and  moths,  the  legs,  and  often  more  or  less  of  the  base  or 
borders  of  the  wings  are  clothed  with  hair  or  hair-like  scales.  These  insects  have  a  long  or 
short  proboscis,  through  which  they  imbibe  their  food,  which  consists  of  the  honey  of  flowers, 
the  sap  of  trees,  or  moisture  from  the  ground.  Like  other  insects,  they  have  six  legs  in  the 
perfect  state  ;  but  in  some  species  either  the  front  or  hind  pair  becomes  more  or  less  rudimentary, 
especially  in  the  males. 

Butterflies  and  moths  pass  through  four  stages.  The  egg  is  laid  by  the  female  on 
some  plant  which  will  provide 
suitable  nourishment  for  the 
caterpillar.  A  caterpillar,  which 
is  the  next  stage,  is  a  jointed, 
worm-like  creature  with  sixteen  . 
legs  ;  those  corresponding  with 
the  legs  of  the  perfect  insect 
are  horny,  and  a  pair  is  placed 
on  each  of  the  first  three 
joints  behind  the  head.  The 
next  four  pairs,  called  "  pro- 
legs,"  are  thick  and  fleshy,  and 
a  pair  is  placed  under  each  of 
joints  seven  to  ten  (reckoning 
the  head  as  joint  one),  the  last 
joint  of  all  being  provided  with 
a  pair  slightly  differing  from  the 
others, and  called  "claspers."  In 
many  young  caterpillars,  how- 
ever, and  also  in  the  full-grown 
caterpillars  of  a  considerable 
number  of  moths  (especially 
among  those  with  slender 


Phala  tj  J.   Edwards] 


LEAF-BUTTERFLY 

TAise  butterflies  are  ;c  remarkably  like  certain  leaves  that  it  is  almost  impossible  ti  distinguish 
the  difference  e-ven  at  close  quarters 


312         THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


M»l4  ».  L.  H.  7t..;«.]  [Nnc  rtrl 

SOUTH    AMERICAN    LONG-WINGED 
BUTTERFLIES 

Stowing  external  reumklanct    btnveen    twc  ttatcrfliti  «J 
different  familiei 


Mw  •  h  L.  H.  7««r.rj  ( Ntw  r«r» 

DIANA    FRITILLARY 

Tki  malt  ii  dark  krtnvn,  viitk  a  hrxxi  crange  border  ipttted 
•milk  Hoc*.      Tkt female  kai  freen  marginal  marking 


QUEEN    OF   SPAIN    FRITI  I.I.A  K  V 

trne*  tt-i.it,  will  fink  tfeti;  iftttia  teitk  iiii-er  ktneaik 


bodies),  one  or  more  of  the  first  three  pairs  of  pro-legs 
may  be  rudimentary  or  absent,  and  the  caterpillar 
walks  by  arching  its  back  at  every  step,  in  a  way 
that  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated,  though  such 
caterpillars  (popularly  called  Loopers,  on  account  of  the 
way  they  loop  up  their  bodies  in  walking)  are  often 
very  active,  and  cover  the  ground  much  more  rapidly 
than  one  might  imagine.  Sometimes  the  claspers,  or 
last  pair  of  legs,  are  modified  into  tentacles,  which, 
in  the  caterpillars  of  the  Puss-moth  and  its  allies, 
contain  retractile  whips,  used  as  weapons  of  defence. 

Caterpillars  are  very  voracious,  and  increase  in 
size  with  great  rapidity;  and  whenever  their  skin 
gets  too  tight,  after  splitting  it,  they  slip  it  off 
(along  with  the  lining  of  the  stomach  and  intestines), 
and  after  a  few  hours'  lethargy,  necessary  to  recover 
from  the  debilitating  effects  of  such  a  serious  opera- 
tion, and  to  give  the  new  skin  time  to  dry  and 
harden,  they  begin  to  feed  again  as  voraciously  as 
ever.  The  number  of  these  moults  varies  according 
to  the  species ;  when  the  caterpillar  has  attained  its 
full  growth,  it  enters  upon  the  third  stage  of  its 
life  as  a  pupa,  or  chrysalis. 

A  pupa  means  a  doll,  or  swaddled  baby,  and  is 
a  very  appropriate  name  for  the  dark-coloured  object, 
cased  in  a  horny  skin,  with  no  detached  organs  visible, 
except  the  sheath  for  the  proboscis  in  some  of  the 
Hawk-moths,  in  which  this  organ  is  unusually  long, 
but  with  the  separate  cases  of  the  wings,  logs,  etc., 
of  the  future  butterfly  or  moth  plainly  visible  in  the 
sutures  on  its  surface.  The  pup;u  of  some  butterflies 
have  more  or  less  metallic  colours;  and  to  these  only 
is  the  term  "  chrysalis"  applicable. 

Some  pupa:  are  naked,  and  those  of  most  butter- 
flies are  cither  suspended  by  the  tail,  or  attached  to 
a  branch  by  a  belt  of  silk  round  the  body.  Those 
of  moths  are  generally  formed  either  in  an  earthen 
cell  under  tin- 
are  enclosed  in 
chiefly  composed  of  silk,  though  sometimes  moss  or 
chips  of  wood  are  worked  into  it.  Other  pupai 
are  found  between  leaves,  or,  in  the  case  of  cater- 
pillars which  feed  in  the  wood  of  trees,  or  in  the 
stems  of  plants,  in  the  galleries  where  they  have 
lived. 

When  the  perfect  butterfly  or  moth  is  ready  to 
emerge,  the  pupa  splits,  and  the  insect  works  it>  way 
to  the  open  air.  Its  body  is  limp  and  heavy,  and  the 
wings  are  like  little  flaps  of  wet  rag;  but  it  discharges 
a  quantity  of  superfluous  fluid,  generally  of  a  red 
cnlnur,  and  llxi-s  itself  on  a  branch,  or  other  con- 
venient foothold,  where  its  wings  can  hang  downwards. 


surface    of    the    ground,    or    else 
an    oval  case   called    a  "  cocoon," 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


313 


The  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
muscles  pump  air  into  the  hollow  tubes 
which  form  the  framework  of  the  wings ; 
these  rapidly  expand  to  their  full  size,  and 
become  dry  and  firm  at  the  same  time. 
After  this,  the  insect  flies  about  with  its 
companions,  pairs,  lays  its  eggs,  and  then 
dies,  after  enjoying  its  life  for  a  period, 
varying  according  to  the  species  and 
the  season,  from  a  few  hours  to  several 
months. 

We  have  not  yet  spoken  of  the 
feelers,  or  antennae,  of  butterflies  and 
moths.  They  are  two  long,  jointed 
organs,  nearly  always  knobbed  at  the 
end  in  butterflies,  or  at  least  the 
terminal  joints  are  thicker  than  the  rest. 
But  in  moths  the  antennae  are  of  different 
shapes,  and  generally  end  in  a  point. 
Sometimes  they  are  simple  and  thread- 
like ;  sometimes  they  are  thickest  in  the 
middle,  and  thinner  at  both  ends,  as  in 
the  Hawk-moths ;  and  they  are  often 
comb-like,  especially  in  the  males,  as  in 
the  Silk-moths. 

BUTTERFLIES 

As  already  mentioned,  butterflies 
may  be  distinguished  from  moths  by 


Fhale  by  Highly 


PlMHtf  L.  H.  Jmt,ri  \ttiw   >>'t 

CATERPILLAR    OF    TAWNY    ADMIRAL 

Remarkable  for  the  sharply  contrasted  black  arid  pale  markings 


TAWNY    ADMIRAL 

A  North  American  butterfly 


their  antennae  being  thickened 
at  the  extremities.  There 
are  comparatively  few  species 
in  Europe  —  only  about  three 
hundred,  of  which  between 
sixty  and  seventy  are  met  with 
in  the  British  Islands;  but  in 
tropical  countries  they  are  much 
more  numerous  and  varied. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  butterflies  are  always 
bright-coloured  insects,  and 
moths  the  reverse ;  for  though 
many  butterflies  are  brightly 
coloured,  others  are  very  dingy. 
On  the  other  hand,  although 
it  is  equally  true  that  many 
moths  are  dull-coloured,  others, 
especially  among  those  with 
slender  bodies.or  thosewhichfly 
by  day,  are  quite  as  brilliantly 
coloured  as  any  butterflies. 


314     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THK     WORLD 


Ait  f .  i  .  AIM*!** 

BLUE    BUTTERFLY 

tkt  mest  foitsfifuout  of  tke  smaller  European 
tuntrfiei 


Butterflies  aredivided  into  several  groups.the  first 
of  which  includes  the  Ml  sii-FOOTEU  Bl"n  I  ui  i  h  3, 
so  called  because  the  front  pair  of  legs  is  converted 
into  hairy  paws,  useless  for  walking,  and  only 
employed  for  toilet  purposes.  This  is  a  very  exten- 
sive group,  including  about  half  the  butterflies 
known,  and  is  divided  into  several  smaller  section-. 
The  most  interesting  species  among  the  DAN  \n>s 
is  the  MONARCH,  one  of  the  largest  and  commonest 
butterflies  found  in  North  America.  It  is  migratory 
in  its  habits,  and  has  succeeded  in  acclimatising 
itself  throughout  the  Pacific  islands  as  far  as  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  as  well  as  in  the  Canaries ;  and 
so  many  specimens  have  been  taken  recently  in  the 
south  of  England  that  it  seems  not  unlikely  to  take 
up  its  residence  there  also.  It  is  a  tawny  butter- 
fly, not  unlike  the  one  represented  on  the  preceding 
page,  but  much  larger,  measuring  about  5  inches 
across  the  wings.  The  caterpillar  is  yellow,  with  trans- 
verse black  bands,  and  a  pair  of  long,  black  slender 
filaments  near,  each  extremity  of  the  body.  The 
pupa  is  pale  gr,een,  with  golden  spots,  and  is 

suspended  by  the  tail,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  those  of  the  Brush-footed  Butterflies. 

The  next  group,  the  LONG-WINGED  BUTTERFLIES,  includes  a  considerable  number  of  species 

with  long  rounded  wings,  found   in   tropical   and  sub-tropical  America.     A  species  with  black 

and  transparent  markings  is  shown   on    page  710,  but  many  have   wholly  transparent   win^s, 

except  for  a  narrow  black  or  brown  border. 

Turning  to  more  familiar  insects,  there  are  several   kinds  of  large  or  moderate-sized  ta\\ny 

butterflies,    marked    with    black    spots 

and    lines,   called    FRITILLARIES.     The 

caterpillars  are  spiny,  and  feed  on  violets 

and  other  low-growing  plants. '  The  pho- 
tograph on  page   710  shows  the  DIANA 

FKITII.LARY,    a    large    and    handsome 

species,  which  is  somewhat  of  a  rarity  in 

the  Southern  States  of  America ;  it  meas- 
ures 4  inches  in  expanse,  and  the  sexes 

are  very  dissimilar.     It   is  dark  brown, 

with  a  broad  orange  border  spotted  with 

black   in  the   male,  and  rows   of  more 

or  less  connected   green  or  white  spots 

in  the  female. 

The  AM.I  I:-\VIM,I:I)  Hi  TTERFLIES 

include    several    of    the     best    known 

and    most    brightly    coloured    species, 

such  as  the   Kl  l>    AhMlKAl.,  a  velvety 

black  butterfly,  with    a    transverse  red 

band  on  the    four    wings,    and    several 

white    spots     between     this    and     the 

tip,     the     hind    wings    having     a    red 

border,    spotted    with    black    and  blue. 

It     m  alii.ut     _: .',     inches    across 


ftlilt  h   II'.    5j-.  i.'.1, .AT,  il.  ; 


.    tn-St* 


BLUK  MOKI'HO  BUTTERFLY  AND  HUMMIMi    BIRD 

Note  proportionate  i;Wj 


PTictfi  ty  J.  'EdweTii\ 

LARGE    BLUE    BUTTERFLY    (MALE, 
FEMALE,    AND     UNDERSIDE) 


MAZARINE  BLUE   BUTTERFLY  (MALE, 
FEMALE,    AND    UNDERSIDE) 


Flltlil  by  J.   F.dwardlJ 

LONG-TAILED    BLUE    BUTTERFLY 
(MALE,  FEMALE,  AND  UNDERSIDE) 


[Coltsburmt 

BLOXWORTH  BLUE  BUTTFRFLY  (MALE, 
FEMALE,   AND  UNDERSIDE) 


316      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


the  wings,  and  is  common  in  gardens  and  orchards  in  summer  and  autumn.  The  caterpillar, 
which  feeds  on  nettle,  is  brown  or  black,  with  yellow  stripes  and  spines.  The  T\\\  NY  ADMIRAL 
is  a  North  American  butterfly,  remarkable  for  its  resemblance  to  ^the  larger  butterfly  called 
the  Monarch,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The  Danaids  and  Long-winded  Butterflies 
have  tough  integuments  and  a  disagreeable  odour,  which  more  or  less  protects  them  from 
birds.  Many  other  butterflies  belonging  to  other  families  have  a  superficial  resemblance  to 
these,  and  are  believed  to  share  in  their  immunity.  This  phenomenon  is  technically  called 
"  mimicry."  The  caterpillar  of  the  tawny  admiral  is  grey  and  black,  with  curious  spiny  tufts. 


IK 

LARGE     COPPER     BUTTERFLY     (MALE, 
FEMALE,     AND    UNDERSIDE) 


DUSKY    COPPER    BUTTERFLY    (MALE, 
FEMALE,     AND    UNDERSIDE) 

Taien  near  llfmcombe,  Augutt,  iSSj. 


The  group  of  the  SATYRS  contains  a  great  variety  of  moderate-sized  brown  or  tawny 
butterflies,  usually  with  round  spots  centred  with  white  towards  the  margins  of  the  wings. 
Many  species  are  common  in  meadows,  others,  which  arc  dark  brown  or  black,  with  red,  white- 
centred  marginal  spots,  are  numerous  in-mountainous  countries,  and  two  species  are  found  in 
the  north  of  Kngland  and  Scotland.  The  caterpillars  .,f  the  Satyrs  are  usually  smooth  and 
green,  with  a  forked  tail,  and  the  pupa;  are  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  great  Kl.t'E  BUTTERFLIES  of  South  America  form  another  group  of  Brush-footed 
Butterflies. 

The  second  family  is  almost  entirely  American,  and  is  only  represented  in  Kngland  by 
a  brown  butterfly  about  an  inch  in  expanse,  called  the  1)1  Ki:  I>F  Bn«;r\DV  FKITIU.ARY.  The 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


317 


Photo  fa  W.   Saville-Kint. 
F.Z.S.,  Milford-on-Sta 

NEW    GUINEA 

GOLDEN 
BUTTERFLY 

ArtmarkabUandrcctntly 
discovered  swallow- 
tailed  butterfly 


caterpillar  is  reddish,  and  feeds  on  primroses.     It  is  not 
a  very  abundant  species  in  England. 

The  third  family  is  represented  in  Britain  by  three 
very  distinct    sections    of  rather   small    butterflies,    the 
largest  of  which  scarcely  measures  more  than  an  inch  and 
a  half  across  the  wings.       These  are  the  HAIR-STREAKS 
(brown,  with    light    lines  on    the  under  surface  of  the 
wings,  and  a  short    tail  on  the  hind    wings,  except  in 
the  GREEN  HAIR-STREAK,  so  named  from  the  green  under 
surface  of  the  wings);   the  small  BLUE  BUTTERFLIES,  which 
generally  have  brown  females  ;  and  the  COPPERS,  the  only  common 
species  of  which  measures  about  an  inch  across  the  wings.     The 
fore  wings  are  bright  coppery  red,  with  dark  brown  spots  and  borders, 

and  the  hind  wings  are  dark  brown, 
with  a  coppery  red  border,  spotted 
outside   with    black.       The   small 
copper    butterfly     and    some 
of  the    blues   are 

V^  common    in    meadows 

and  gardens. 

Many  of  the   members  of 
the  fourth  family  are  of  a 
white  or  yellow  colour, 
among  which  are 
the    destructive 
WHITE 

^L.^jmC^BM^V 

C  AH  - 
BAGE-BUTTER- 

FLIES,    three 

species    of  which   are 

very  common   in   England, 

where     they    may    be    seen    in 

every      garden     throughout       the 

summer.     The  photograph  on  page  716 

represents  one  of  these  at  rest.      A  prettier 

species  is  the  ORANGE-TIP,  which  is  common 

in  spring.       The  underside  of  the  hind  wings  is 

mottled    with    green ;    and    there  is    a    bright    orange 

spot  before  the  tip  of  the  fore  wing,  both  above  and  below. 

Some  of  the  South  American  butterflies  of  this  family    much 

resemble  the  Long-winged   Butterflies  of  the  same  country. 

The  family  of  the  SwALLOW-TAILED  BUTTERFLIES  includes 
a  considerable  number  of  large  and  handsome  species,  but  they  are  not  numerous  in  Europe, 
and  only  one  black-and-yellow  species,  measuring  3  inches  across  the  wings,  is  found  in 
England,  where  it  is  now  almost  confined  to  the  fens  of  the  south-eastern  counties;  its 
green  caterpillar,  with  transverse  black  bands  spotted  with  orange,  feeds  on  carrot,  fennel, 
and  other  similar  plants.  All  the  caterpillars  of  this  family  arc  remarkable  for  possessing  a 
retractile  fork  on  the  neck ;  but  the  butterflies  do  not  all  possess  the  long  appendage  to  the 
hind  wings  which  has  given  some  of  them  the  name  of  Swallow-tails.  Thus  it  is  wanting  in 
most  of  the  great  BlRD-\\TXGED  BUTTERFLIES  of  the  Eastern  Islands,  one  of  which,  the  CRCESL'S 
BUTTERFLY,  is  represented  in  the  Coloured  Plate.  The  great  difference  between  the  sexes  is 
21 


W»fo  by  If.  Savill,-Ktnt,  F.Z.S., 
Milford-an-Sia 

AUSTRALIAN  BUTTERFLIES 

Emerging  Jrom  their  pupte 


318       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/>.!.*.    7.     FJu-Jr/,-]  [f, ;,, 

BATH    WHITE    BUTTERFLY 

Cummin  or.  lit  Coitrinenl  if  Eurift 


well  worth  noting.  The  female  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  the  male,  but  in  the 
coloured  figure  the  former  has  been  reduced, 
owing  to  the  exigencies  of  space.  Mr.  A.  K. 
Wallace  writes  as  follows  of  the  capture  of 
the  first  specimen  :  — 

"  One  day  about  the  beginning  of  January, 
I  found  a  beautiful  shrub  with  large  white  leafy 
bracts  and  yellow  flowers,  a  species  of  Mus- 
-a- n i la,  and  saw  one  of  these  noble  in- 
hovering  over  it,  but  it  was  too  quick  for  me, 
and  flew  away.  The  next  day  I  went  again 
to  the  same  shrub  and  succeeded  in  catching 


a  female,  and  the  day  after  a  fine  male.  I  found  it 
to  be  as  I  had  expected,  a  perfectly  new  and  most 
magnificent  species,  and  one  of  the  most  gorgeously 
coloured  butterflies  in  the  world.  Fine  specimens  of 
the  male  are  more  than  seven  inches  across  the 
wings,  which  are  velvety  black  and  fiery  orange,  the 
latter  colour  replacing  the  green  of  the  allied  species. 
The  beauty  and  brilliancy  of  this  insect  are  indescrib- 
able, and  none  but  a  naturalist  can  understand  the 
intense  excitement  I  experienced  when  I  at  length 
captured  it.  On  taking  it  out  of  my  net  and  open- 
ing the  glorious  wings,  my  heart  began  to  beat  violently, 
the  blood  rushed  to  my  head,  and  I  felt  much  more 
like  fainting  than  I  have  done  when  in  apprehension 
of  immediate  death.  I  had  a  headache  the  rest  of 
the  day,  so  great  was  the  excitement  produced  by  what 
will  appear  to  most  people  a  very  inadequate  cause." 

The  SKIPI-ERS,  the  last  family  of  butterflies,  are 
comparatively  stout-bodied  insects,  with  the  antennae 
widely  apart  at  the  base,  and  sometimes  forked  at  the 


flult  t}  B.  II.  B,, 

GREKX-\  I  IM.1)    \YHIII     Hi    |   ITKFLY 

The  cabbagc-butterjl\  rfjerrej  to  in  fagt  f/j 


7-  K4w*rt,}  [Ct/,,*.r», 

BLACK-VEINED    WHITE    BUTTERFLY 


tip.  They  are  not  numerous  in  Kun>pe;  the 
prettiest  of  the  Hritish  species  is  perhaps 
the  I'KAKI.-SKII'I'KK,  which  MKMSUIVS  rather 
more  than  an  inch  across  its  br<>\vn  and  tawny 
wings;  the  under  surface  of  the  hind  win^s 
is  green,  and  marked  with  several  clear  white 
spot-. 

MOTHS 

Moths  are  much  mure  numerous  than 
butterflies,  and  there  are  about  2.000  dim-rent 
kinds  found  in  the  Hritish  Islands  alone. 
Consequently WC  are  able  to  notice  only  a  lew 

The    HA\VK-\|I  ini>    have    long,    pointed 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


319 


wings,  thick,  tapering  bodies,  and  the  antennae 
thickest  in  the  middle.  The  pink,  greenish- 
striped  ELEPHANT  HAWK-MOTH  (see  page  718) 
is  a  comparatively  small  species.  The  speci- 
mens measure  about  2\  inches  across  the  wings. 
Some  species  are  much  larger.  The  DEATH'S- 
HEAD  HAWK-MOTH,  whose  caterpillar  feeds  on 
potato-leaves,  is  5  or  6  inches  in  expanse ;  and 
some  of  the  South  American  species  measure 
as  much  as  9  inches.  The  caterpillars  of  the 
hawk-moths  are  generally  green,  often  with 
oblique  lines  of  a  different  colour  on  the  sides. 
They  are  not  hairy,  though  the  skin  is  some- 
times rough,  and  there  is  a  fleshy  appendage, 
called  a  "  horn,"  on  the  back,  just  before  the 
extremity  of  the  body.  The  brown  pupae 
are  found  in  cells  in  the  ground. 

The  CHINESE 
MULBERRY-SILK- 
WORM, which  pro- 
duces most  of  the 
silk  of  commerce, 


that  kj  E.  C.  Altinim 


Photo  by  J.   Edwards.  Colesbornt 

LARGE    GRIZZLED 
SKIPPER    BUTTERFLY 

t'pptr-  and  under-sldes 

commercial  purposes.  The 
caterpillars  are  generally  more 
or  less  spiny  or  tufted.  Some 
of  the  moths  have  long  tails 
on  the  hind  wings,  like  swallow- 
tailed  butterflies,  and  there 
are  several  species  in  South 
Europe,  South  Africa,  the  East 
Indies,  and  North  America  of 
a  beautiful  sea-green  colour. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
specimens  represented  on  page 
718  have  the  tails  a  little 
broken,  which  is  a  very  com- 
mon accident  with  swallow- 
tailed  butterflies  and  moths. 
We  may  also  notice  the  round 


ORANGE-TIP 

Showing  three  different  positions  ivhen  •wings  are  folded,  and  partly 
or  entirely  concealing  upper  <wing 

is       a      smooth, 

whitish  caterpillar,  about  2  inches  long,  with  a  horn.  It  is 
often  reared  in  England  on  lettuce.  The  moth  is  a  sluggish, 
stout-bodied  insect.  It  is  whitish,  with  two  dusky  stripes  on  the 
fore  wings.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  an  oval  whitish  or  yellow 
cocoon  of  pure  silk. 

The   EMPEROR-MOTHS,  of  which   there  is  only  one  species 
in    England,    likewise    spin    large   cocoons,    sometimes    used    for 


M.I.  tf  W.  P.  Danj,,  F.Z.S. 

SWALLOW-TAILED    BUTTERFLY 


320       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


ELEPHANT    HAWK-MOTHS 

SAoiving  petition  *wktn  at  rtit 


/*.!.  fc    «(J*.V. 

LUNA     MOTHS 

4frtn  Nertk  jtmtri^n  melk  tpr/.*  nil,  Mid  te  ikt  F.nfKtk  F.mftrtr. 


or  crescent-shaped  spots  in  tin-  middle  of 
the  wings  of  some  of  the  ninths  represented 
on  this  page  and  tin-  in-xt.  These  are 
vi'iy  characteristic  of  tlie  empi-ror-moths, 
and  there  is  often  a  transpaivnt  ->pnt  in  the 
centre  of  the  concentric  markings.  T\M> 
other  North  American  s]>ecirs  of  this  family 
are  slmwii  in  the  photographs  on  paije  719, 
rather  under  natural  sixe.  The  Mv.md  .  >| 
tllese,  till'  (.'i:CK(i]-|A  MnTII.is  n-])rcs,-nted 

\vithitst-ocoon.    This  moth  has  occasionally 

been  captured  in  I-'.n^land.  liavin;^  hct  n 
introduced  either  accidentally,  or  l>y  design. 
A  year  or  two  a<M>  a  specimen  was  brought 
to  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South 
Kensington  which  had  been  caught  in  the 
street  close  by.  I  hiring  the  summer  many 
foreign  butterflies  and  moths  may  !><•  M-eii 
alive  in  the  Insect-house  at  the  Xoologieal 
(Jard<-ns,  Uegent's  I'.irk,  and  srveral  of  the 
photographsgiven  intln-se  p.i-eswi-n-  taken 
from  spirinicns  living  there  in  the  summer 
of  igor.  The  largest  of  the  emperor-moths 
isthegre.it  All  iS  M"  I  II  of  \(.i  th  India, 
the  largest  of  all  known  butterflies  or  moths, 
\vhi.  h  occasionally  measures  almost  a  foot 
-  its  reddish-tawny  wings. 


CROESUS    BIRD-WINGED   BUTTERFLY,     MALE. 
Molucca. 


CROESUS    BIRD-WINGED  BUTTERFLY,  FEMALE. 
Molucca. 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


321 


The  IMPERIAL  MOTH,  a  handsome  North 
American  moth  belonging  to  a  family  allied  to 
the  emperor-moths,  is  represented  below. 

The  ECGARS  form  another  allied  family, 
also  with  tufted  caterpillars,  but  with  the 
central  eye  of  the  wings  absent,  or  reduced 
to  a  small  black  spot.  A  set  of  remarkable 
photographs,  representing  the  eggs,  cater- 
pillars, cocoons  and  sections  of  cocoons,  and 
the  moths  of  a  large  and  handsome  species 
—  the  CYPRESS-MOTH  of  Smyrna  —  appears 
on  pages  720  and  721.  We  have  received 
the  following  account  of  their  habits  from 
Mr.  Mavroyeni,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  photographs:  "  T"  the  month  of 


fhat  bj  L.  H.  Jwttl,  Niw  rv» 

POLYPHEMUS    MOTH 

A     handsome      North      American 
Emperor-moth 

July  they  start  weav- 
ing their  cocoons,  in 
which  they  remain  for 
seventeen  days.  A 
couple  of  weeks  after 
the  moths  have  emerged 
from  their  cocoons  and 
laid  their  eggs,  the  eggs 
hatch,  and  the  young 
caterpillars  run  up  the 
tree,  and  feed  from  the 
end  of  August,  during 
autumn,  winter,  and 


Flit.i  k;  Highly 

CECROPIA    MOTH 

The  largest  of  the  N-^rth  American  Emperor-moths 

spring."  We  believe  that  the  cocoons  of 
this  species  are  prepared  for  use  as  silk  in 
Greece. 

Among  other  kinds,  we  may  notice  the 
bright-coloured  TIGER-MOTHS,  with  their  black 
and  cream-coloured  fore  wings  and  red-and- 
black  hind  wings,  which  frequent  gardens, 
and  arc  reared  from  reddish-brown  caterpillars 
with  long  hair.  These  are  stout-bodied 
moths ;  and  there  are  other  moths,  with 
brown  fore  wings  and  whitish  hind  wings, 
which  fly  to  candles,  or  buzz  over  flowers  in 
the  evening.  These  are  called  O \VL-MOTi is  ; 
but  there  are  larger  and  handsomer  members 


Phott  by  L.  H.  Jouttl] 

IMPERIAL    MOTH 

TeHo'w1  ivith  purflhh-broivn  dots  and  blotches.      Native  of  North 
America 


322       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/•*•»  ti  C.  X.  A/JI  .„,.,,] 

COCOONS    OF    CYPRFSS-MOTH 


t IM,  »,  f .  .v 

CYPRESS-MOTHS    AT    1<I      I 

/•  ike  minim  if  Jmlj  tier  aart  waving  tkeir  locum,  in  wtift  tley  remain  fat 
m-emteei  aj,,.      A  tutf/l  if  tueeti  after  tkeir  egri  ar,  katcked,  and  tie 

••fi'.la'i  run  uf  tke  tree,  aid  tttdfram  tile  end  if 
.l^i*  I,  during  autumn,  f-mg 


of  the  same  family,  called  Yi  i  i."\v 
I'NDKRWINGS,  measuring  nearly  2 
inches  across  the  wings,  and  likely  to 
be  flushed  in  strawberry-beds  or  hay- 
fields.  They  have  brown  fon-  \vini;s, 
and  bright  yellow  hind  wings,  with  a 
black  border.  The  RED-IMH  K\\  tNG 
MOTH  is  about  3  inches  in  r\]>.uiM-, 
and  has  greyish-brown  fore  win^>,  and 
red  hind  wings,  with  a  black  CL-M- 
tral  band;  it  is  often  seen  flying 
about  willow-trees  in  the  afternoon, 
or  resting  on  tree-trunks,  when  the 
bright-coloured  hind  wings  are  quite 
concealed. 

The  Looi'EK-Monis  arc  th 
produced  from  caterpillars  which  have 
only  ten  legs  instead  of  sixteen,  as 
already  explained.  Most  have  slender 
bodies  of  moderate  length,  and  broad 
and  rather  brightly  coloured  wings, 
green,  russet-brown,  yellow,  etc. 
Some,  measuring  about  an  inch  in 
expanse,  are  called  CAKIT  r-M'Mii^ 
from  the  zigzag  patterns  on  the  fore 
wings,  which  are  generally  black  and 
white,  or  brown  and  white,  and 
sometimes  green.  The  VKI.I.OVV- 
sllKl.I.,  a  yellow  moth,  with  some  zig- 
zag brown  and  whitish  lino  ,u-n  .-s  the 
wings,  which  expand  about  an  inch, 
is  common  in  hedges  and  bushes. 
The  white,  black-and-yello\v-spotted 

GonSKHKRRY-MoTII,     or     MAHI'IK- 

MOTH,  so  common  in  gardens  is  aKo 
one  of  the  Loopers. 

Among  the  smaller  moths  are  the 
PEAKI. -MOIIIS,  with  loug  slender 
bodies,  wings  longer  than  bn«ad,  and 
often  with  a  pearly  lustre,  one  or  two 
species  of  which  are  common  among 
nettles.  \Ye  may  also  mention  the 
SNOUT-MOTH,  a  brown  slender-bodied 
moth,  with  a  pointed  beak  projecting 
in  front  of  the  hcad.likewisea  common 
in-ect  among  nettles.  The  (I|<A->- 
M'Mlls  are  small  moths,  with  narrow 
whitish  fere  wings,  and  broad  brownish 
hind  wings,  which  they  wrap  round 
their  bodies  when  at  rest.  They  are 
common  in  every  field  and  meadow. 
The  Mr  I  l.-M"nMi.ivebn.adtninc.ited 


SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS 


323 


fheto  by  C.  N.  Mavrayenl] 

CYPRESS-MOTHS 

The  inside  of  tht.  cocoons,  showing  the  pupae 


fore  wings,  and  rounded  hind  wings.  A  species 
belonging  to  this  family,  with  green  fore  wings 
and  brown  hind  wings,  may  be  shaken  from  every 
oak-tree  in  summer,  and  at  the  same  time  num- 
bersof  its  little  green  caterpillars  will  drop  them- 
selves down,  and  remain  swinging  at  the  end  of 
a  thread,  till  they  think  that  the  danger  is  past, 
when  they  climb  up  again. 

The  CLOTHES-MOTHS,  familiar  to  every- 
body, are  representatives  of  an  enormous  family 
of  small  moths,  comprising  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  British  species,  but  only  a  few  live  in 
houses.  Most  have  narrow  wings  with  long 
fringes,  and  many  feed  in  tortuous  galleries 
which  they  eat  in  the  substance  of  leaves. 
Some  are  among  the  smallest  moths  known. 

The  WHITE  PLUME-MOTH,  which  may  be  noticed  floating  about  in  weedy  places  like  a 
piece  of  thistle-down,  is  a  representative  of  a  small  family  in  which  the  fore  wings  are  divided 
into  three  separate  feathers,  and  the  hind  wings  into  two.  The  other  species  are  brown,  and 
smaller.  When  at  rest,  they  look  like  small  daddy-long-legs. 

The  TWENTY-PLUME  MOTH  is  a  yellowish-grey  species,  less  than  an  inch  in  expanse,  often 

to  be  seen  at  rest   on    windows  or  palings. 

It  might  easily  be  taken  for  a  small  looper- 

moth,  but  that   each  wing  is  split  into   six 

feathers. 

SILKWORMS 

We  have  now  completed  a  rapid  survey 
of  the  principal  groups  of  Butterflies  and 
Moths,  and  may  fittingly  conclude  this  part 
of  our  subject  by  giving  a  short  account  of 
the  historyof  SILKWORMS  —  insects  which  far 
surpass  all  other  butterflies  and  moths  in 
their  importance  to  mankind,  on  account  of 
the  valuable  product  which  is  obtained  from 
their  cocoons.  The  industry  has  been 
carried  on  from  time  immemorial  in  China; 
and  many  old  Chinese  works  contain  in- 
teresting particulars,  especially  relating  to 
the  rearing  of  silkworms  by  the  queens  and 
their  ladies,  for  silk  was  probably  a  royal 
monopoly  in  old  times.  These  Chinese 
records  date  back  to  about  2200  B.C.,  when 
the  silk  industry  was  already  flourishing; 
but,  according  to  the  usually  received  tradi- 
tion, silkworms  were  first  reared  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Hwang-te  (2640  B.C.) 
by  his  queen.  The  following  extracts  from 
M  the  "  Le-he  Book  of  Ceremonies,"  written 

Pheto  kj  C.  N.  Mavrvycni]  tSmirna 

between  204  B.C.  and   135  B.C.,  and  quoted 
CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS  by  Horsfield  and  Moore  in  their  "  Catalogue 

When  they  leave  their  cocoons,  'he young  caterpillars  run  up  th-  tree  ta  feed        of      the      LepidoptCra       of      the       East       India 


324       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


J. 


DEATH'S-HEAD    MOTH 

Rtmarkablt  fi,r  iki  ikull-likt  fatttrn  an  tkt  back 


ffeft* 


upon  the  mulberry-trees,  people  were  to  prepare 
the  trays  and  frames  for  the  purpose  of  rearing 
the  silkworms. 

"  In  the  spring  season,  when  the  empress  and 
her  ladies  had  fasted,  they  proceeded  to  the  east, 
and  personally  engaged  in  picking  the  mulberry- 
leaves.  On  this  occasion  the  married  and  single 
ladies  were  forbidden  to  wear  their  ornaments,  and 
the  usual  employments  of  females  were  lessened,  in 
order  to  encourage  attention  to  the  silkworms. 
When  the  rearing  of  the  silkworms  was  completed, 
the  cocoons  were  divided  (for  reeling)  and  the  silk 
weighed  (for  weaving),  each  person  being  rewarded 


Museum,"  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  our 
readers :  — 

"  In  the  first 
month  of  spring  orders 
were  issued  to  the 
forester  not  to  cut 
down  the  mulberry- 
trees;  and  when  the 
cooing  doves  were  ob- 
served fluttering  with 
their  wings,  and  the 
jays  alighting 


J.    r.tl  Mlllmr] 


CONVOLVULUS     HAWK-MOTH 

•**  l"*J  ""*>  ""*  /»**  *•«<<•  "  t*t  Ixdy 


DAY-KI.YINc;      MO  III 
OF     MADAGASCAR 

Remarkable  for  the  biii.-.  . 
itt  fo/eurt  —  grefn  and  t>lactt 
'.L-illi  the  ifW%fafl  hril.'itint 
tafftry  rtd  totvarji  tkt 
tjcr>,  •• 

according  to  her 
labour,  in  order  to 

provide  dresses  for  the 
celestial  ,md  .mrrst,,rial 
sacrifices.  In  all  this 
none  dared  indulge  in 
indolence 

"  In  the  last  month 
of  summer  the  order 
was  given  to  the 
female  officers  to  dye 
the  silk  of  various 


i  b;  C.   N.  Mtvrynu] 


GREAT    PEACOCK-MOTH 

.  iv,  th  pale  borders.      The  largest  moth  found  in  Europe 


Lin.,,, ... 


Phete  fa   /Jr.   R.   tf.   ShufeMt] 


POLYPHEMUS     MOTH 

On  leaves  of  linden-tree^  just  out  of  cocoon.      A  native  of  North 

325 


326      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


,  If. 


i«t.  F.Z.S.]  ; 

WHITE    PLUME-MOTH 


A  vtry  JtScati  inieci.     Tke  win  ft  art  c.'tfi  almost  to  tke  kau  '»«  u  far  ate 
ftatkert,  two  OH  tke  fort  ivingi  and  three  on  tke  kind  *wirigt 


colours,  in  order  to  weave  chequered  sarcenets, 
comprising  black  and  white,  black  and  green, 
green  and  red,  with  red-and-white  checks  — 
all  of  which  was  to  be  done  according  to 
the  ancient  rule,  without  the  least  variation; 
the  black,  yellow,  azure,  and  red  tints  were 
all  to  be  correct  and  good,  without  the  least 
fault,  in  order  to  provide  dresses  for  the 
celestial  and  ancestorial  sacrifices,  and  stand- 
ards for  distinguishing  the  high  and  low 
degrees. 

"  In  ancient  times  the  emperor  and  his 
princes  had  a  public  mulberry  garden  and 
a  silkworm  establishment  erected  near  some 
river.  On  the  morning  of  the  first  day  of 
the  third  month  of  spring,  the  sovereign, 
wearing  a  leather  cap  and  a  plain  garmeir, 
ascertained  by  lot  the  chief  of  his  three 
queens,  with  the  most  honourable  amongst  liis 

concubines,  and  caused    them  to  attend  to  the  rearing  of  the  silkworms  in  the  above-named 

establishment.     They  then  brought  the  eggs  of  the  worms,  and  washed    them   in  the  river 

above  alluded  to,  after  which  they  picked  the  mulberry-leaves  in  the  public  garden,  and  aired 

and  dried  them,  in  order  to  feed  the  worms. 
"  When  the  season  was  over,  the  royal 

concubines,  having  completed  the  business  of 

rearing  the  silkworms,  brought  the  cocoons 

to  show  them  to  the  prince,  when  he  pre- 
sented   the    cocoons   again    to    his   consort, 

whereupon   his   consort   said,    '  This   is    the 

material  of  which  your  highness's  robes  are 

to    be    formed."      Having    said    which,   she 

covered  herself  with  her  robe,  and  received 

the  cocoons.     On  this  occasion  the  ladies  of 

the  court  were  honoured  with  the  present  of 

a  sheep.     This   was  the  mode  in  which  the 

presentation   of  the   cocoons   was   anciently 

conducted." 

In   the   reign  of  Justinian   eggs   of  the 

Chinese    mulberry -silk  worm   were   smuggled 

into  Europe  by  two  monks,  and  the  culture 

of   silk    rapidly    spread    through    Southern 

Europe,   where    it    has    continued    to   form 

a  staple  industry  ever   since.     In  the   Pelo- 
ponnesus especially  such  large  plantations  of 

mulberry-trees  were  grown  for   the  purpose 

of  rearing  silkworms  as  to  give  the  peninsula 

its  modern  name  of  Morea.     Silk  is  obtained 

in  different  parts  of  the  world  from  the  cocoons 

of  various  other  moths,  chiefly  belonging  to 

.,                       ,..  flui,  t,,  u'.  jaii. •.',.*•,*/,  r.x.  v]                           ;.>/,••.. ./-I.-IM 

the  group  of  Emperor-,,,,, tin  ;   l,nt  these  pro-  INDIXN    SWALLOW-TAILED    MOTH 

ducts  are  only  of  local  importance,  and  arc  not  Rtumt:et  tkt  Amtr^n , ,_ ,  „  ,k  ^rrj  „  fj£e  .fS>  fnd  rf  „. 

likely  to  compete  with  the  mulberry-silkworm.  </«j///  dtiieau 


HALF-WINGED    INSECTS 


327 


v 


HALF-WINGED    INSECTS,  OR   BUGS    AND    FROG-HOPPERS 

BY  W.  F.  KIRBY,  F.L.S 

THE  order  including  the  Bugs  and  Frog-hoppers  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders.  There  are 
also  one  or  two  small  groups,  sometimes  treated  as  separate  orders,  and  sometimes  regarded 
as  aberrant  sections  of  the  order,  to  which  we  shall  allude  later. 

The  TRUE  BUGS  have  their  fore  wings  of  a  horny  texture,  but  generally  overlapping, 
and  the  extremities  form  a  transparent 
membrane,  resembling  that  of  the  hind 
wings.  They  have  a  long  sucking-proboscis 
curved  down  beneath  their  bodies,  and 
their  antennae  usually  consist  of  only  four 
or  five  long  joints.  Most  are  vegetable- 
feeders,  but  some  species  feed  on  the 
juices  of  other  insects,  while  a  few  attack 
warm-blooded  animals,  either  casually  or 
habitually. 

The  first  family  includes  the  SHIELD- 
BUGS.  These  derive  their  name  from  the 
unusual  development  of  a  part  of  the 
thorax  called  the  "  scutellum."  In  most 
insects  it  is  only  a  small  plate  of  no  great 
importance,  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
thorax;  but  in  the  Shield-bugs  it  forms 


Ph,t,,  by  If.  F.  Dandt,  F.Z.S. 

SHIELD-BUG 


In  tropical  countries  these   bugs  are 

a  great  solid  arch,  covering  the  whole  of  cfien  as  large  ai  cockchafers 


JUNIPER-BUG 

Some  species  of  this  family  are  car- 
nivorous as  iveil  as  herbivorous 

the    wings,    and     protecting    them    as   the 

wing-cases  protect  the  wings  of  beetles.  There  are  only  a  few  small  species  in  England,  but  a 
great  number  of  beautiful  species  inhabit  warm  countries,  some  of  a  brilliant  blue  or  green 
or  yellow,  or  spotted.  Many  of  them  are  comparatively  large  insects,  nearly  an  inch  long, 
and  resemble  brilliantly  coloured  beetles,  from  which,  however,  they  can  easily  be  distinguished 
by  the  antennas,  the  proboscis,  and  the  shield,  the  latter  of  which  is  not  divided  down  the 

middle  like  the  wing-cases  of  beetles. 
Next  to  the  Shield-bugs,  and 
considered  by  many  entomologists  as 
belonging  to  the  same  group,  are 
the  PENTAGONAL  SHIELD-BUGS,  so 
called  because  the  scutellum,  though 
much  smaller  than  in  the  Shield- 
bugs,  is  often  half  as  long  as  the 
abdomen, and  forms  a  broad  triangle, 
sometimes  broken  at  the  sides,  so 
as  to  make  a  five-sided  plate, 
lying  above  the  bases  of  the  wings. 
Several  green  or  brown  species  of 
this  family,  about  half  an  inch  long, 
are  common  in  England  among 
bushes.  Many  have  a  very  dis- 
•••I  agreeable  smell,  and  hence  they  are 

Prieto  JJ  J.  F.d-jjjrd,}  [Ciluktn 

LACE-WING    BUG 


elegant  little  insect,  injurious  to  pear-tr'a 


called  STINK-HUGS  in  America.  They 
feed  on  vegetable  juices,  and  also 
frequently  on  soft-bodied  insects. 


328      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE   WORLD 

Several  species  (chiefly  foreign)  among  the  Shield-bugs  and  the  present  group  have  a  strong 
spine,  or  else  a  blunt  protuberance,  projecting  from  each  shoulder. 

The  remaining  plant-bugs  are  much  more  numerous — at  least  in  England  —  than  those 
already  mentioned,  and  form  several  families,  which  cannot  be  noticed  in  detail.  Many  species 
arc  rather  small  and  delicate  creatures,  .narrower  and  softer  than  the  Shield-bugs  and  Pentagonal 
Shield-bugs,  and  are  adorned  with  various  colours,  black  and  red  predominating.  Some  have 
more  transparent  wings  than  the  others,  such  as  the  beautiful  little  LACI:-\VI.\(,I.I>  HUGS,  one 
species  of  which  is  often  very  destructive  to  pear-trees. 

The  BED-BUG  is  a  reddish-brown,  somewhat  oval  insect,  common  in  many  old  houses, 
hiding  in  cracks  and  crevices  in  walls  and  woodwork,  and  coming  out  at  night  to  suck  the 
blood  of  sleepers  with  its  sharp  proboscis.  There  are  allied  species,  sometimes  found  in 
hen-houses,  pigeon-houses,  and  places  where  bats  congregate.  The  bed-bug  has  only  been 
known  in  England  for  a  few  centuries,  and  though  now  a  great  pest  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
was  probably  a  native  of  Africa  originally. 

The  bed-bug,  notwithstanding  its  offensive  odour,  is  preyed  upon  by  several  other  insects, 
among  which  are  the  common  cockroach  and  the  MASKED  Hl'G.     The  latter  is  a  black-\\  i 
bug  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and  remarkable  for  the  habits  of  its  larva,  which 
'  conceals   itself  with  dust   or  fluff,  so  that  it  may  steal  upon  its 

prey  unobserved.  The  masked  bug  and  its  larva  feed  on  soft-bodied 
insects  of  various  kinds,  and  are  more  frequently  found  in  outhouses 
than  in  dwelling  rooms.  This  bug  occasionally  attacks  warm-blooded 
animals ;  and  a  short  time  ago  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  was  published 
in  the  newspapers  about  a  mysterious  insect-pest  in  North  America, 
called  the  KlSSlNG-BUG,  which  seems  to  have  been  nothing  m»i 
unusual  thanthisinsect.  Thercare,however,somemuch  larger  species 
belonging  to  the  same  family,  which  are  formidable  pests  in  the 
Southern  States  of  North  America,  Chili,  and  various  other  countries. 
After  these  insects  come  the  WATER-BUGS,  of  which  there  are 

'  nut.tr  ic.  r.  z><»*,  r.z.i.  several  families,   though  the   number  of  species  is  comparatively 

MASKED    BUG  small.     Some  are  very   slender  insects,    with    long,   slender   legs, 

r*r  u™  ./  tk*  in,«H  cn-<r         and   may  be  seen  running  on   the  surface  of  ponds  in  England ; 

tkimuii.ii  ivitk  Jua,  in  <,rdtr  while  others,  which  are  tropical  species,  are  marine,  and  are  met 

"  ""f  u™™?  fr'y  witl)  running  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  open  sea. 

The    largest  members  of  the    group  are   some  of  the   great 

water-bugs  found  in  Africa,  India,  and  America.  Their  fore  wings  are'of  a  light  brown,  and 
measure  from  3  to  5  inches  in  expanse.  Their  legs  are  short  and  strong,  and  the  front  li 
are  adapted  for  grasping  their  prey,  which  consists  of  insects  and  small  fishes.  There  are  some 
smaller  species  in  which  the  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  cluster  on  the  back  of  the  male,  which 
carries  them  about  till  they  are  hatched.  These  bugs  fly  about  in  the  evening,  and  are 
frequently  attracted  by  electric  light. 

In  England  there  are  two  allied  species  called  WAIKR-SI  ourii  >N>,  fiom  their  long  front 
legs,  which  somewhat  resemble  the  nippers  of  a  scorpion.  The  commonest  is  a  brown  insect, 
with  the  abdomen  red  beneath.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  including  the  breathing-tube, 
which  sticks  out  behind  the  body  like  a  tail,  and  is  formed  of  two  separable  parts.  It  is  an 
oval  insect,  half  as  broad  as  long,  and  is  common  in  stagnant  water.  The  other  •-]>,,  u •-  is  twice 
as  long,  and  is  much  more  slender,  with  longer  and  nn.re  >lender  legs.  It  is  yellowish  brown, 
like  most  of  the  other  water-bugs,  and  is  a  sluggish  and  rather  scarce  insect,  creeping  about 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  deeper  water  than  that  preferred  by  the  commoner  -pecies. 

The  \VATKR-HII.\TMKN  are  yellowish-brown  insects,  measuring  half  an  inch  in  length,  with 
smooth  bodies,  and  long,  hairy  hind  legs,  with  which  they  row  themselves  about  on  the 
water,  as  if  with  oars,  while  floating  on  their  backs.  All  the  larger  water-bugs  arc  capable  of 
inflicting  a  severe  puncture  with  their  sharp  proboscis,  if  handled  incautiously. 


Phate  k;  IV.  ?.  Dunda,  F.Z.S. 


Pl,,t,  b,  M'.  f.  Dando,  F.Z.S. 


GREAT    WATER-BUG 

Very  similar  species  are  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America. 


GREAT    WATER-BUG 

These  insects  live  in  •water  during  the  day,  and  fy  about  in  the  evening 
329 


330     THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  FROC-UOITKRS  and  their  allies  differ  from  the  Bugs  in  the  fore  wings  being  uniform 
in  texture  throughout,  and  not  membranous,  with  the  tips  transparent.  Sometimes  the  fore 
wings  are  of  a  more  or  less  horny  texture,  but  they  are  frequently  as  transparent  as  the 
hind  wings.  All  the  species  are  plant-feeding  insects. 

The  first  family,  the  Cie.\l>\s,  includes  a  number  of  large  or  moderate-sized  species,  in 
which  the  males  are  provided  with  a  large,  drum-like  apparatus  on  the  abdomen,  and  some  of 
which  make  the  loud  noise  for  which  they  have  long  been  celebrated.  There  is  only  one 
comparatively  small  species  in  England,  which  is  rare,  and  almost  confined  to  the  New  Forest. 
It  is  black,  with  transparent  wings,  about  i\  inch  in  expanse,  and  has  red  transverse  lines 
on  the  abdomen.  The  largest  Indian  species,  however,  sometimes  expands  8  inches.  Cicadas 
have  broad  heads,  broad  short  bodies,  ending  rather  abruptly  in  a  point,  and  their  larvae  live 
in  the  ground,  where  they  are  sometimes  injurious  to  the  roots  of  trees.  The  wings  are 


MrM  tf   J.    [JmrJ,l  [Ct/«IH'«. 

INDIAN    CANDLE-FLY 

Erroriecui/y  italtd  to  he  lumtnoul 

* 

usually,  but  not  always,  transparent  —  a  very  common  Indian  and  Chinese  species,  about 
3  inches  in  expanse,  being  black,  with  large  yellow  spots  on  the  fore  wings.  In  North 
America  and  Australia  cicadas  are  often  miscalled  Locusts. 

The  LANTERX-KMES.  or  ('  \\ni.r.-KI.IES,  which  form  the  next  family.  derive  their  name  from 
having  been  stated  to  be  luminous,  a  statement  which  is  now  considered  vi-ry  doubtful. 
They  are  insects  of  considerable  size  and  bright  colours,  occasionally  resembling  bnttertlies 
and  moths;  the  largest  species,  the  I. AMI  KN-II.V  of  South  America,  sometimes  nu.i-.nre>  .is 
much  as  5  inches  across  the  wings,  which  are  of  a  pale  yellowish  or  greenish  tint,  with  a  large 
round  spot  on  the  hind  wings,  formed  of  black  rings  or  crescents,  and  enclosing  one  or  two 
large  white  spots.  On  the  head  is  an  immense  hollow,  blunt  protuberance,  marked  with  one 
or  two  longitudinal  red  lines.  In  some  species  there  is  a  curved  horn  in  front  of  the  he.ul ; 
in  some  the  horn  forms  a  short  cross;  in  others  it  ends  in  a  red  knob;  while  others  .in- 
destitute  of  such  an  appendage.  The  hind  wings  are  often  brightly  coloured,  red  or  yellow 
usually  predominating. 


HALF-WINGED    INSECTS 


331 


Phtti  fy  tC.  t.  Dande,  F.Z.S. 

SCALE-INSECT 

The  females  die,  covering  their  eggs 
'with  their  own  bodies 


W«.  b.  If    P.  Eand,,  F.Z.S. 

APHIS 

A  sexual  'wingless  form 


rrouncl, 


also   quit  the 

Although  very  abundant   in   America,  the  insect  is   not   nearly  so 

destructive  to  the  plants  which  it  attacks  as  in  Europe. 

Some  species  of  SCALE-INSECTS  are  almost  equally  destructive, 
especially  to  greenhouse  plants.  The  male  is  slender  and  two- 
winged,  but  the  female  is  wingless  and  often  legless,  and  after  de- 
positing her  eggs  usually  dies  above  them,  thus  forming  a  covering 
to  protect  them  from  injury.  Cochineal  consists  of  the  bodies  of  a 
species  of  scale-insect  which  infests  the  leaves  of  a  cactus  in  Mexico. 

The  TRUE  LICE  are  found  on  various  species  of  mammals, 
and  imbibe  their  food  through  a  proboscis.  The  BlRD-LICE,  or 
BITING-LICK,  form  a  well-defined  group  by  themselves.  They  are 
sometimes  regarded  as  forming  distinct  orders  of  insects;  but 
some  authors  treat  the  first  group  as  a  degraded  family  of  insects 
allied  to  the  Frog-hoppers,  and  the  second  group  as  an  equally 
degraded  and  aberrant  family  allied  to  the  Lace-winged  Insects. 


The  TRUE  FROG-HOPPERS  are  small  insects  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  long,  found  among  grass  and  bushes.  The  fore  wings  are 
of  rather  a  stout  consistency  and  uniform  in  colour  (often  yellowish), 
and  the  hind  wings  transparent.  The  larvae  are  soft  grubs,  and 
live  in  the  masses  of  froth  so  common  in  grass  and  bushes,  which  are 
vulgarly  known  as  "  cuckoo-spit." 

Passing  over  several  families  of  small  species,  we  arrive  at  two 
which  contain  many  very  destructive  insects.  The  APHIDES,  PLANT- 
LICE,  or  SMOTHER-FLIES  are  the  small  green  or  brown  winged  or 
wingless  insects  which  frequently  cover  the  shoots  of  roses  and 
other  trees  and  plants,  and  exude  a  sweet  sticky  substance,  called 
"  honey-dew,"  very  attractive  to  ants.  One  species,  known  as  the 
AMERICAN  BLIGHT,  is  extremely  destructive  to  apple-trees,  patches 
of  a  substance  resembling  white  cotton  appearing  on  the  bark. 
Under  these  patches  the  bark  rots  from  the  attacks  of  the  insects, 
the  pest  being  very  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Many  of  the  Aphides  exhibit  the  curious  phenomenon  known 
as  "  alternation  of  generations."  The  first 
brood  consists  of  winged  males  and  females; 
but  the  eggs  which  the  latter  lay  produce 
exclusively  wingless  females,  or  rather  sexless 
creatures  capable  of  laying  eggs,  and  these 
multiply  indefinitely  for  a  time,  till  perfect 
males  and  females  are  again  reproduced.  In 
some  cases  the  winged  forms  live  on  the 
leaves  of  trees,  and  the  wingless  forms  at 
the  roots  of  grass,  etc.  One  of  the  most 
destructive  of  all  these  insects  is  the  VlNE- 
APHIS,  which  was  probably  introduced  into 
Europe  from  America,  and  which  threatened 
at  one  time  almost  to  destroy  the  vine  in- 

L  j       dustry    in   France.     Wingless  sexless  forms 

live  and  multiply  at  the  roots  of  vines;  and 
in  summer  winged  males  and  females  are 
produced,  which  fly  up,  and  lay  eggs  on  the 
leaves ;  while  some  of  the  wingless  insects 
and  form  small  galls  on  the  vine-leaves. 


Phut  kj  W.P.Dande,  F.Z.S. 

SCALE-INSECTS 

Showing  their  affearance  when 
Crowded  together  on  a  branch 


332       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


••••••• 

fkM,  tf  C.  K.  M4Vr.;>nl] 

CICADA     AND    PUPJE 

Wtttd  fcr  tkt  loud  drumming  tound  produced  by  the  maUt 


TWO-WINGED   INSECTS,   OR   FLIES 

BY    W.    F.    KIRBV,    F.L.S 

THIS  order  of  insects  is  probably  one  of  the 
most  numerous  in  individuals,  though  it  may  be 
that,  when  \ve  know  more  of  the  insect  population  of 
the  world,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  outnumbered  in 
species  by  the  Beetles  or  the  order  to  which  the 
Hires  and  Ants  belong.  It  differs  from  all  other 
orders  in  possessing  only  two  wings  instead  of  four, 
which  is  the  usual  number  in  insects.  The  meta- 
morphoses are  complete,  and  the  mouth  is  furnished 
with  a  proboscis  for  imbibing  liquid  food.  Hind  wiiv^s 
are  represented  in  many  species  by  a  pair  of  organs 
called  "  poisers,"  resembling  a  knob  at  the  end  of  a 
stick,  and  other  species  have  two  small  addition.il 
lobes  attached  to  the  wing,  called  "  winglets  "  ;  but 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  really  developed  hind 
wing  in  any  insect  belonging  to  the  group.  They 
are  always  two-winged  flies,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
few  aberrant  species,  such  as  the  Fleas,  in  which  no 
wings,  or  only  mere  rudiments  of  wings,  arc  to  be 
met  with.  The  Gnats,  Daddy-long-legs,  and  House- 
flies  are  among  the  commonest  representatives  of  this 
order. 

The  first  section  of  the  group  includes  the  GNATS  and  the  DADDV-I.ONC.-I.KI.S,  or  CRANK- 
FLIES, the  members  of  which  may  be  distinguished  by  having  moderately  long  antenna:,  comp<  ised 
of  more  than  six  joints,  and  never  terminating  in  a  bristle.  They  are  all  vegetable-feeder*. 
with  the  exception  of  the  females  of  gnats  and  sand  flies,  which  are  furnished  with  a  lancet- 
like  arrangement  for  sucking  the  blood  of  warm-blooded  animals. 

The  GALL-FLIKS.  WHEAT-MIDGES,  etc.,  have  rather  long,  jointed  antennas,   which   arc  not 
feathered,  though  sometimes  tufted  on  the  sides,  and  their  maggots  produce   small  galls  on 
various  trees  and  plants,  or  distort  and  otherwise  injure  them.     They   resemble  small    -M.IN. 
and  there  are  two  particularly  destructive  species  which  attack  corn  in  England  and  elsewhere, 
—  the  \VUEAT-.\IIIICE,  an  orange-yellow  fly  with  black  eyes,  which  produces  little  yellowish  or 
reddish  maggots  which  injure  the  growing  grain  in  the  ear;   and   the  Hr>-i  \\   l-'i.v.  which 
is  brown,  and  produces  semi-transparent  maggots,  which   afterwards  grow  darker,    and    when 
full  grown  become  pupae  resembling  flax-seeds.     The  maggots  attack  the 
stalk,  feeding  on  the  sap  till  the  stalk  cracks  and  bends  over.     This  is  an 
infallible  sign  of  their  presence,  and  of  the  mischief  they  are  doing. 

Among  the  best-known  insects  of  this  group  are  the  GNATS,  or 
Mos'.u n "!•>,  of  which  there  arc  many  genera  and  species.  There  is  no 
difference,  however,  to  permit  of  their  being  classified  in  two  separate 
popular  categories.  In  England  any  of  these  troublesome  insects  are 
called  Gnats;  out  of  England  they  are  termed  Mosquitoes,  if  we  are 
tormented  by  them,  even  though  they  may  belong  to  the  same  species 
as  the  English  ones  —  for  "  mosquito  "  is  merely  the  Spanish  word  for 
"  gnat "  Anglicised. 

Gnats  breed  in  standing  water,  fresh  or  otherwise,  but  seem  to  picfcr 


tha,  k,  H'.  P. 


rain-water,  for  they  are  very  numerous  about    small  pools  and  water-butts.     BROWN   Musgi  I  1  o 
Consequently  they  were  formerly  far  more  abundant  in    England   than    at 
present,  when  the  fens  were   still    undrained,  and    when   every  house    had 


:kt  ftrokotctt  iri  front 
of  the  tttttd 


TWO-WINGED    INSECTS 


333 


Ph,t,  fy  W.  P.  Dandt,  F.Z.S.} 

HORNET    ROBBER-FLY 

Common  in  the  south  of  England 


r- 


its  rain-water  butt.  The  females  of  some  species  construct 
small  rafts  of  eggs,  which  float  about  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  till  hatched,  and  then  produce  small  maggots  with  a 
breathing- apparatus  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  In  this  condition 
they  swim  head-downwards,  while  the  more  compact  pupa 
floats  head-upwards.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  pouring  a 
little  kerosene  into  their  breeding-places ;  and  as  this  floats 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  it  does  not  interfere  with  the 
use  of  the  water  in  water-butts,  which  is  usually  drawn  off 
by  a  tap  below.  The  males  of  gnats  often  have  feathered 
antennas  and  long,  slender  legs.  The  females,  however,  are 
more  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  come  into  houses  in  the 
evening,  and  keep  people  awake  by  their  humming  and  pain- 
ful "  bites,"  or  rather  punctures,  which  frequently  cause  a 
distressing  irritation  for  a  day  or  two  afterwards.  What  is  worse  is  that  they  are  now 
known  to  disseminate  various  diseases,  such  as  elephantiasis  and  also  malarial  fever  of  every 
kind,  in  this  manner  —  from  the  comparatively  mild  ague  of  the  English  fens  (now  nearly 
extinct)  to  the  terrible  malaria  of  Southern  Europe,  India,  and  Africa,  formerly  attributed  to 
the  unhealthy  atmosphere  of  marshy  countries,  or  to  exposure  to  the  night  air  in  warm 
countries,  but  now  known  to  be  caused  by  the  bites  of  the  gnats,  or  mosquitoes,  which  breed 
in  swampy  places,  and  fly  about  in  the  evening.  It  is  believed  that  only  certain  species  of 

gnats  convey  the  germs  of  these  diseases ; 
and  it  has  been  stated  that,  though  ague- 
bearing  species  of  gnats  are  still  found  in 
England,  those  which  have  been  examined 
for  the  purpose  have  been  free  from  these 
germs,  and  are  therefore  incapable  of  prop- 
agating the  disease. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  gnats  are 
excessively  numerous  and  troublesome  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  filling  the  air 
like  clouds  of  dust,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  sleep  or  eat  from  the  annoyance  and 
irritation  caused  by  their  attacks.  This 
will  be  readily  credible  to  those  who  have 
experienced  the  pain  which  they  cause  even 
when  not  very  numerous,  and  have  been 
kept  awake  at  night  by  their  shrill  piping 
as  they  approach.  They  appear  to  be 
equally  numerous  in  cold  and  warm 
countries  —  Lapland,  France,  South  Russia, 
Italy,  various  parts  of  America,  and  in  fact 
most  parts  of  the  world  being  liable  to  the 
inordinate  multiplication  of  different  species. 
In  England  they  were  formerly  so 
abundant  in  the  fenlands  that  mosquito- 
curtains  were  in  use  less  than  a  century 
ago,  and  may  be  so  still.  But  their  numbers 
have  so  diminished  of  late  years  that,  when- 


fh,i,  h,  W.  r.   D*nd>,  F.  Z  S. 

DADDY-LONG-LEGS 

Large  species,  'with  variegated  ivingt 
22 


ever  gnats  are  a  little  more  troublesome 
than  usual,  it  is  reported  that  there  has 
been  an  invasion  of  mosquitoes.  A  year  or 


334       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

two  ago  there  was  a  report  that  "mosquitoes"  had  been  brought  to  Cromer  in  some  fishing- 
vessel,  and  the  newspapers  contained  paragraphs  about  "  mosquitoes "  having  caused  much 
annoyance  in  different  parts  of  London.  But  many  of  the  specimens  submitted  to  the  inspection 
cf  entomologists  proved  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  commonest  of  all  the  blood-sucking 
gnats,  called  the  PlPlXG-CXAT  by  Linna,-us,  on  account  of  its  shrill  note.  The  note  is  produced 
by  the  rapid  vibration  of  the  wings,  which  has  been  estimated  at  the  rate  of  3,000  per 
minute.  Gnats  do  not  always  fly  near  the  ground.  Sometimes  they  have  been  seen  ascending 
from  cathedrals  and  other  high  buildings  in  such  vast  swarms  that  they  resembled  clouds  of 
smoke,  and  gave  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  building  was  actually  on  fire. 

Equally  troublesome  and  annoying  are  the  SAND-FLIES,  as  they  are  called  in  England,  or 
the  Bl.ACK-Fl.lKS,  as  they  are  called  in  America.  They  are  very  small  flies,  short  and  broad, 
and  with  broader  wings  than  gnats ;  and  one  of  them,  which  actually  destroys  many  mules 
and  other  domestic  animals  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  as  we  learn  from  Professor  Comstock,  is 
called  the  BUFFALO-GXAT,  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  side-view  of  the  insect  to  a 
buffalo.  Other  species  are  equally  destructive  to  the  cattle  in  the  Banat  of  Hungary.  It  is 
a  curious  circumstance  that,  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  two-winged  flies  which  attack  men  and 
animals,  it  is  usually  only  the  females  which  suck  blood,  the  males  frequenting  flowers  and 

being  perfectly  harmless. 

'  Respecting  mosquitoes  in  South 

America,  Mr.  H.  W.  Bates  writes,  in 
his  work  "  The  Naturalist  on  the 
Amazons,"  when  passing  a  night  in  a 
boat  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the 
town  of  Villa  Nova :  "  At  night  it 
was  quite  impossible  to  sleep  for  mo~- 
quitoes ;  they  fell  upon  us  by  myriads, 
and  without  much  piping  came  straight 
at  our  faces  as  thick  as  rain-drops  in 

F  Z  S 

a  shower.     The  men  crowded  into  the 
HOVER-FLY  RAT -TAILED    LARVA          cabjnS)   and    thcn   ^    tQ  ,    ^ 

Ttiijh  tfi  a  uifer/uial  reiemt.antt  to  a  lut  &mmcn  ia  fltAy  viattr     '  .        . 

pests  by  the  smoke  from  burnt  rags ; 

but  it  was  of  little  avail,  although 

we  were  half  suffocated  during  the  operation."  But  the  sand-flies,  encountered  a  little  higher 
up  the  river,  were  much  worse:  "  We  made  acquaintance  on  this  coast  with  a  new  insect-pest, 
the  Pium,  a  minute  fly,  two-thirds  of  a  line  in  length,  which  here  commences  its  reign,  and 
continues  henceforward  as  a  terrible  scourge  along  the  upper  river,  or  Solimoens,  to  the  end 
of  the  navigation  on  the  Amazons.  It  comes  forth  only  by  day,  relieving  the  mosquito  at 
sunrise  with  the  greatest  punctuality,  and  occurs  only  near  the  muddy  shores  of  the  stream, 
not  one  ever  being  found  in  the  shade  of  the  forest.  In  places  where  it  is  abundant,  it 
accompanies  canoes  in  such  dense  swarms  as  to  resemble  thin  clouds  of  smoke.  It  made  its 
appearance  in  this  way  the  first  day  after  we  crossed  the  river.  Before  I  was  aware  of  the 
presence  of  flies,  I  felt  a  slight  itching  on  my  neck,  wrist,  and  ankles,  and,  on  looking  for 
the  cause,  saw  a  number  of  tiny  objects,  having  a  disgusting  resemblance  to  lice,  adhering  to  the 
skin.  This  was  my  first  introduction  to  the  much-talked-of  Piiim.  On  close  examination,  they 
are  seen  to  be  small  two-winged  insects,  with  dark-coloured  body  and  pale  legs  and  wings,  the 
latter  closed  lengthwise  over  the  back.  They  alight  imperceptibly,  and,  squatting  close,  fall 
at  once  to  work,  stretching  forward  their  tiny  front  legs,  which  are  in  constant  motion,  and 
seem  to  act  as  feelers,  and  then  applying  their  short,  broad  snouts  to  the  skin.  Their 
abdomens  soon  become  distended  and  red  with  blood,  and  then,  their  thirst  satisfied,  they  soon 
move  off,  sometimes  so  stupefied  with  their  potations  that  they  can  scarcely  fly.  No  pain  is 
felt  whilst  they  are  at  work,  but  they  each  leave  a  small  circular  raised  spot  on  the  skin,  and 
a  disagreeable  irritation.  The  latter  may  be  avoided  in  great  measure  by  pressing  out  the 


TWO-WINGED    INSECTS  335 

blood  which  remains  in  the  spot ;  but  this  is  a  trouble- 
some task  when  one  has  several  hundred  punctures  in 
the  course  of  a  day  [like  Prince  Siror,  in  one  of  Bulwer 

Lytton's   stories,    who    fell    "  pierced   by  five   hundred  fr  -m. 

spears"].  I  took  the  trouble  to  dissect  specimens,  to 
ascertain  the  way  in  which  the  little  pests  operate.  The 
mouth  consists  of  a  pair  of  thick  fleshy  lips,  and  two 
triangular  horny  lancets,  answering  to  the  upper  lip  and 

,.  .  ~,   .        .  n°t.  by  W.  P.  Da»d.,  F.Z.S 

tongue  of  other  insects.      I  his  is  applied  closely  to  the 

skin,  a  puncture  is  made  with  the  lancets,  and  the  blood  °USE-FLY  (MALE  AND  FEMALE) 

then  sucked  through  between  these  into  the  cesophagus,  """"thrive '•whirl  cUaaKatl" alnund1  *°  d°  "" 

the   circular   spot   which    results   coinciding   with    the 

shape  of  the  lips.     In  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  red  spots  dry  up,  and  the  skin  in  time 

becomes  blackened  with  the  endless  number  of  discoloured  punctures  that  are  crowded  together. 

The  irritation  they  produce  is  more  acutely  felt  by  some  persons  than  others.     I  once  traveled 

with  a  middle-aged   Portuguese  who  was  laid  up  for  three  weeks  from  the  attacks  of  Piiim,  his 

legs  being  swelled  to  an  enormous  size,  and  the  punctures  aggravated  into  spreading  sores." 

However,  the  traveler  in  Amazonia  has  one  consolation :  the  great  rivers  which  traverse 
the  forests  are  of  three  different  colours;  and  the  black-water  rivers  —  so  called  from  the  dark 
colour  of  the  water,  owing  apparently  to  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  they  hold  in 
solution  —  are  never  infested  with  mosquitoes.  Probably  the  character  of  the  water  renders  it 
unsuitable  to  them  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  CRANE-FLIES,  or  DADDY-LONG-LEGS,  are  also  very  injurious  insects,  but  in  a  different 
manner,  for  their  subterranean  maggots  feed  on  and  destroy  the  roots  of  grass  in  the  same 
way  as  the  grubs  of  the  Cockchafers.  They  are  insects  of  considerable  size,  with  slender  bodies, 
terminating  in  a  short,  horny  point  (the  ovipositer)  in  the  female,  and  with  long,  slender  legs, 
which  are  liable  to  break  off  at  the  least  touch.  The  commonest  species  has  a  grey  body  and 
transparent  wings;  but  there  is  a  larger  one  with  the  wings  prettily  variegated  with  brown, 
and  a  smaller  one  in  which  there  are  yellow  markings  towards  the  end  of  the  body. 

The  more  typical  FLIES  have  usually  shorter  and  broader  wings,  and  thicker,  shorter,  and 
more  hairy  legs,  than  those  just  mentioned ;  and  the  antennae  have  usually  only  three  or  four 
joints,  and  are  often  furnished  with  a  long,  slender  bristle  at  or  before  the  end  of  the  last  joint. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Gnats  and  Crane-flies,  so  as  regards  the  more  typical  Flies,  we  have 
only  space  to  notice  a  few  of  the  more  important  families. 

Some  of  the  GAD-FLIES  are  no  larger  than  house-flies,  but  others  are  as  large  as  wasps  or 
larger,  with  broader  wings,  and  of  a  black,  grey,  or  yellowish  colour;  they  frequent  fields,  and 
settle  on  cattle,  or  on  our  clothes  or  hands.  Some  have  transparent  and  others  dark-coloured 
wings,  but  they  are  all  capable  of  inflicting  a  severe  puncture,  often  sufficient  to  draw  blood, 
even  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  species. 

The  prettiest  of  the  gad-flies  are  the  GOLDEN-EYED  FLIES. 
They  are  black,  with  the  abdomen  more  or  less  marked  with 
yellow ;  and  black,  or  black  and  transparent,  wings.  The  eyes 
are  of  a  beautiful  golden  green,  dotted  and  lined  with  purple. 
They  are  moderately  stout  insects,  about  the  third  of  an  inch 
long,  and  are  not  uncommon.  Another  insect,  known  as  the 
BLOOD-SUCKING  RAIN-FLY,  has  a  rather  long  and  slender  body 
for  a  gad-fly,  and  is  nearly  half  an  inch  long.  It  is  of  a 
lighter  or  darker  grey,  with  reddish  markings  on  the  sides  of 
ph.,,  t,w.  F.  D*»J.,  F.Z.S.  the  abdomen  in  the  male.  The  wings  are  greyish  brown  with 

BLUE-B^TTLE^FLY,   OR        whjtish  dots,   and  a  white  mark   towards  the  tip.     Both  these 

TAese  flies  deposit  their  e    s  on  meat         ^'es  are  very  troublesome,  the  latter  chiefly  on  the  edges  of 
•when  it  becomes  "fy-t/oiun  "  woods  or  near  water,  especially  in  rainy  weather. 


336      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  RoitHKk-KUES  arc  large  flies,  with  long,  tapering  bodies,  of  a  black  or  partly  yellow 
colour,  and  feed  on  smaller  flies  and  other  insects  of  different  kinds.  They  have  very  thick, 
hairy  legs,  and  a  strong  proboscis.  A  handsome  Australian  species,  allied  to  these,  but  with  a 
broader  body,  is  represented  in  the  Coloured  Plate. 

The  HOKMT  ROBBER-FLY,  represented  on  page  731,  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
the  Hritish  species.  Among  other  places,  it  may  be  seen  flying  over  the  short  grass  at  the 
top  of  the  cliffs  between  Brighton  and  Rottingdean.  They  are  very  predaceous,  and  are 
probably  rather  beneficial  than  otherwise,  by  contributing  to  keep  down  injurious  insects. 
But  in  North  America  there  is  a  species  called  the  BEE-KILLER,  which  is  an  extivnu-ly 
destructive  insect,  taking  up  its  station  in  front  of  a  hive,  and  killing  large  numbers  of  bees 
as  they  fly  backwards  and  forwards  from  the  hive. 

The  Hovi.k-n.ll-:s  arc  brightly  coloured,  rather  smooth  flies,  and  are  familiar  objects  in 
gardens,  and  in  open  places  in  woods.  They  have  the  habit  of  hovering  motionless  in  the 
air,  and  then  darting  off  suddenly.  Some  of  the  larger  species  proceed  from  curious  maggots, 
with  long  tails,  which  have  been  compared  to  the  tail  of  a  rat.  These  live  in  putrid  water ; 
and  as  the  flies  have  a  slight  resemblance  to  bees,  the  fact  is  believed  to  have  given  rise  to 
the  old  fable  that  bees  are  generated  from  the  rotting  carcases  of  oxen  or  other  large  animals. 

The  BOT-FLIES  are  remarkable  for  being  parasitic  on  warm-blooded  animals,  their  maggots 
living  in  tumours  on  the  skin  of  oxen,  known  as  "  warbles,"  or  in  the  stomach  and  intestines 
^^^^^^^_^^^^^  of  horses,  or  in  the  nostrils  and  other  cavities  in  the  heads  of 

sheep  or  deer. 

The  HOUSE-FLIES  and  their  allies  form  a  very  large  group, 
divided  into  many  families.     The  true  house-fly  is  an  autumn 
insect;   but  there  are  other  flics  which  resemble  it  which  live 
^^  in  houses  at  different  times  of  the  year.     Most  of  them   are 

harmless,  although  there  is  one  species,  very  like  a  house-fly, 
which   comes    into    houses    in    rainy    weather,    anil     inflicts    a 

r^,.  k  ir.  r.  D*,J*,  r.z.s.  puncture  like  a  gad-fly.      This  is  the  meaning  of  the  popular 

BLUE-BOTTLED  FLY,     OR          sayjng  that  .,  the  fl;es  b;te  ;„  rainy  weather<» 

Ttoft~r.fi  *«.  a,~iv.,t«M  Although  house-flies  do  not  bite,  yet  they  are  sometimes 

exceedingly  troublesome  when  they  are  in  unusual  numbers ; 

and  as  they  settle  everywhere,  they  may  convey  infection  mechanically,  though  not  as  the 
principal  agents  in  the  dissemination  of  definite  diseases,  like  the  mosquitoes.  Thus,  in  Kgypt, 
they  are  said  frequently  to  convey  ophthalmia,  a  very  prevalent  disease  in  that  country. 

The  very  first  paper  published  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  present  Kntomologieal  Society 
of  London"  (for  the  existing  Society  had  several  short-lived  predecessors)  was  a  paper  read  by 
William  Spence  at  the  meeting  on  April  7,  1834,  about  a  year  after  the  Society  had  been 
definitely  founded,  entitled  "  Observations  on  a  Mode  practised  in  Italy  of  excluding  the 
Common  House-fly  from  Apartments."  This  desirable  result  is  attained  simply  by  stretching 
a  net  of  white  or  coloured  thread,  with  meshes  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  across  an 
open  window,  which  the  flics  will  not  venture  to  pass,  if  the  room  is  lighted  from  one  side 
only  — "  for  if  there  be  a  thorough  light  either  from  an  opposite  or  side  window,  the  flies  pass 
through  the  net  without  scruple."  Mr.  Spence's  son  also  referred  to  a  passage  in  Herodotus 
where  he  says  that  Egyptian  fishermen  in  his  time  defended  themselves  from  the  gnats  by 
covering  their  beds  with  the  nets  which  they  had  used  in  the  day  for  fishing,  ami  through 
which  these  insects,  though  they  bit  through  linen  or  woollen,  did  not  even  attempt  to  bite. 
The  matter  seems  to  have  been  overlooked  in  recent  years,  though  it  is  evidently  well  worthy 
of  consideration  when  flies  or  gnats  are  troublesome. 

There  is  a  conspicuous  insect  allied  to  the  house-flies,  but  a  little  larger,  measuring  about 
half  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  called  the  NOON-MAY  Fi.Y,  and  is  often  seen  in  considerable 
numbers,  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day,  flying  round  and  settling  on  the  trunks  and  Iea\es 
of  trees;  it  also  settles  on  cow-dung.  It  is  a  shining  blark  fly,  with  the  sides  and  under  surfa.-e 


TWO-WINGED    INSECTS 


337 


of  the  head  golden  yellow   in  the  male ;  the  wings  are  transparent,  slightly  tinged  with  pale 
brown,  and  bright  rusty  yellow  towards  the  base. 

The  African  TSETSE-FLY  is  not  very  unlike  a  house-fly,  and  is  one  of  the  worst  pests  to 
cattle  in  those  parts  of  Africa  which  it  infests ;  for  any  horse,  ox,  or  dog  attacked  by  it  will 
infallibly  die  after  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  suffering,  though  wild  animals  and  sucking 
calves  are  not  affected  by  it.  It  used  to  be  supposed  that  the  fly  itself  infused  some  deadly 
venom  with  its  puncture ;  but  later  experiments  have  led  naturalists  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  fly  is  not  itself  poisonous,  but  that  it  forms  the  channel  of  communication  of  some  fatal 
disease,  just  as  some  species  of  mosquitoes  convey  the  infection  of  malaria. 

The  BLOW-FLIES,  or  BLUE-BOTTLES,  of  which  there  are  several  species  closely  allied  to  each 
other,  are  common  in  houses ;   and  a  smaller  brilliant  green  fly,  called  the  GREEN-BOTTLE  FLY, 
is  common  on  hedges.     These  are  all  flies  which  lay  their  eggs  on  fresh  or  putrid  meat,  when 
it  is  said  to  be  "  fly-blown."     They  will  also  lay  their  eggs       ^^^^^^^^ 
in    open    sores;   and   in    former    days  the    sufferings   of  the 
wounded  after   a  battle  were  often  frightfully  aggravated  by 
this  cause ;   and  at  the  present  day  farmers  would  frequently 
lose  sheep  through  their  attacks,  if  they  were  not  carefully 
tended  in  hot  weather. 

Various  species  of  flies  in  Eastern  Europe,  the  Southern 
States  of  America,  Jamaica,  etc.,  habitually  lay  their  eggs  in 
the  mouths  or  nostrils  of  men  and  animals,  and  the  resulting 
maggots  cause  dreadful  suffering  and  often  death.  In  India, 
and  especially  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  there  are  some  t._ 
brilliantly  coloured,  smooth,  metallic  blue  and  green  flies  as 
big  as  humble-bees.  There  is  also  a  family  of  flies  allied  to 
the  house-fly,  which  have  very  bristly  bodies,  and  are  parasitic 
on  caterpillars,  like  ichneumon-flies. 

There  are  other  flies  which  easily 
attract  attention,  such  as  the  yellow 
hairy  fly  found  about  cow-dung,  and 
some  rather  small  species  with 
prettily  variegated  wings,  which  feed 
on  flowers  or  fruit  The  cheese- 
hoppers  are  also  the  maggots  of  a 
small  black  fly. 

Besides  these,  there  are  some 
aberrant  parasitic  families  of  flies 
with  long,  hairy  legs,  and  only  one 
or  two  joints  to  the  antennae.  These 
are  the  FOREST-FLIES  and  BlRD- 
FLIES,  which  attack  horses  and  birds ; 
and  also  some  wingless  insects,  such 
as  the  so-called  SHEEP-TICK  (easily 
distinguished  from  a  true  tick  by 
possessing  only  six  legs),  the 
BEE-PARASITES,  and  the  spider-like  BAT-PARASITES.  This  parasitic  group  is  also  remarkable  for 
depositing  full-grown  larvae  or  pupa?  instead  of  eggs. 

The  FLEAS  are  a  small  group  of  small  wingless  insects,  with  such  powers  of  leaping  thai 
it  has  been  said  that  if  a  man  was  as  agile  as  a  flea  he  could  jump  over  the  dome  of 
St.  Paul's.  The  larvae  of  fleas  are  small,  worm-like  creatures,  with  bristles,  but  without  legs ; 
they  probably  live  on  any  sort  of  animal  or  vegetable  refuse.  They  subsequently  change  to  pupas 
in  small  cocoons,  and  emerge  as  perfect  fleas,  which  live  by  sucking  the  blood  of  warm-blooded 


ftuu  tj  W.  P.  DanJ,,  f.Z.S. 

TSETSE-FLY 

Destructive  to  horsei  and  cattle  in  Africa 


Fhit,  bj  W.  t.  Danda,  f.Z.S. 

TSETSE-FLY    (ENLARGED) 

Showing  the  proboscis  and  'veining  of  the  ivings  more  distinctly 


338       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

animals;  or,  when  that  fails  them,  they  may 
attack  caterpillars,  or  other  small  soft-bodied 
creatures.  Though  not  very  particular  about 
their  food,  different  species  are  more  or  less 

^.i  attached    to    different    animals;     and    while    in 

Kurope  the  most  troublesome  species  is  the  one 
considered  to  be  most  particularly  attached  to 
man,  the  species  most  troublesome  in  North 
America  is  known  in  Europe  as  the  Doc,- MI  \. 
They  are  all  very  similar  in  habits  and  appear- 
ance. Fleas  are  not  only  annoying,  but,  in  con- 
junction with  rats,  are  believed  to  be  among  the 

HHH  tf  w.r.o****,  r.z.s.  principal  agents  inthespread  of  theplague.    There 

BEE-FLY  is  another  insect  called  the  JiGGER.or  SAND-I  i.i: \, 

SimiUr  » <k,fy  vkick  JtHrv,  ,k.  t«u«  C&,  in  Cyfru,  common  in  most  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America, 

and   which   has  more   recently  been  introduced 

into  Africa.  The  female  burrows  into  the  feet  of  men  or  animals,  where  her  body  swells  up 
with  eggs  to  the  size  of  a  pea ;  and  serious  and  sometimes  fatal  ulcers  are  the  ordinary  result, 
unless  the  insect  is  carefully  extracted  at  an  early  stage  of  the  attack. 

USES  OF  FLIES 

It  must  not  be  supposed  from  the  foregoing  observations  that  flies  are  simply  and  solely 
pests  to  man  and  beast,  without  any  redeeming  qualities.  Their  services  are  less  required  in 
cold  and  settled  countries,  but  in  warm  climates  their  value  as  scavengers  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated.  As  regards  the  removal  of  carrion  alone,  Linnaeus  declared  that  the  progeny 
of  only  three  blow-flies  would  devour  the  carcase  of  a  dead  horse  as  quickly  as  a  lion  —  a 
statement  which,  even  if  slightly  exaggerated,  conveys  a  vivid  idea  of  their  voracity  and  the 
rate  at  which  they  increase. 

Flies  are  also  useful  in  keeping  down  the  multitudes  of  destructive  insects-  Numbers  of 
caterpillars  fall  victims  to  the  bristly  flies  alluded  to  on  the  last  page;  and  the  Bee-flies,  which 
form  a  family  placed  next  to  the  Gad-flies,  render  far  greater  service  in  destroying  locusts. 
They  much  resemble  small  humble-bees,  being  very  much  the  same  shape,  and  they  are 
clothed  with  yellow  down  in  the  British  species,  and  the  transparent  wings  are  conspicuously 
marked  with  black  bands  (as  in  the  photograph  above),  or  with  brown  shading  and  spots. 
The  insects  have  a  very  rapid  flight,  and  use  their  long  proboscis  to  suck  the  honey  of 
flowers;  but  their  grubs  are  parasitic  —  at  least  in  some  instances — on  wild  bees;  and  it  is 
probable  that  their  resemblance  to  bees  has  some  reference  to  this  mode  of  life.  But  in 
Cyprus,  Algeria,  North  America,  etc.,  the  larvae  of  allied  species  feed  inside  the  egg-cases 
of  locusts,  sometimes  destroying  as  large  a  proportion  as  four-fifths  of  the  whole  brood. 
Locusts  have  many  enemies,  but  it  will  easily  be  seen  that  the  attacks  of  foes  like  these 
must  reduce  their  numbers  considerably,  notwithstanding  the  swarms  which  frequently  survive, 
and  which  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  other  enemies,  such  as  robber-flics,  locust-birds,  etc., 
after  they  have  actually  arrived  at  maturity. 

Nor  must  we  omit  to  notice  the  use  of  flies  as  articles  of  food  for  man  or  useful 
animals.  Many  persons  are  very  fond  of  cheese-hoppers,  which  are  really  the  maggots  of  a 
small  fly;  and  we  read  in  Kirby's  "Textbook  of  Entomology,"  page  92:  "  The  Rev.  A.  E. 

>n  informs  me  that  he  believes  that  two  species  of  /•.'/>//<•;«<•;•/</<?  (May-flies)  form  a  portion 
of  the  so-called  '  Kungu  Cake,'  manufactured  by  the  natives  of  South  Africa  of  gnats,  and 
probably  any  other  insects  which  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  abundance."  "  Gentles,"  which 
are  the  maggots  of  flies,  are  used  by  anglers  for  ground-bait. 


BOOK  VI.     SHELL-FISH,    LAMP-SHELLS,    SEA- 

URCHINS,    STAR-FISHES,    MOSS-ANIMALS, 

WORMS,    CORALS,    JELLT-FISHES, 

AND     SPONGES 


BY    W.    SAVILLE-KENT,    F.L.S.,   F.Z.S. 


CHAPTER    I 

SHELL-FISH,    OR   MOLLUSCS 

THE  Molluscan  Group  or  Sub-kingdom  represents 
one,  if  not  the  most  important,  of  the  invertebrate 
sections  of  living  animals  with  relation  both  to  its 
numbers  and  variety  and  in  its  commercial  and  economic 
utility  to   mankind.     In    its   ranks  are  included  all   those 
animals  generally  known  as  Shell-fish,  and  familiar  to  the 
non-scientific  in  the  shape  of  Oysters,  Mussels,  Whelks, 
Periwinkles,  and  the  innumerable  varieties  of  gorgeous  or 
delicately  tinted  shells  of  tropical  seas. 

Collectively,  Molluscs  differ  from  all  such  invertebrate 
groups  as  Insects,  Crustaceans,  and  Worms  in  that  they 
possess  neither  jointed  limbs  nor  jointed  bodies,  their 
body-substance  being  enclosed  by  a  more  or  less  distinct 
muscular  sac,  or  integument,  technically  known  as  the 
"  mantle."  Molluscs  possess  no  internal  skeleton  ;  but  for 
the  protection  of  their  soft  and  otherwise  defenceless 
bodies  the  mantle  is  among  the  great  majority  of  species 
endowed  with  the  property  of  secreting  a  more  or  less 
indurated  calcareous  shell,  within  which,  when  danger 
threatens,  the  creature  can  entirely  withdraw.  In  some 
species  the  shell  secreted  is  relatively  small,  and  serves 
only  as  a  protective  shield  to  especially  vital  areas ;  while 
in  a  third  very  considerable  assemblage  a  shell  is  altogether 
absent.  The  minute  yet  technically  recognisable  structural 
differences  between  the  shells  of  even  the  most  closely 
allied  specific  forms,  and  the  wider  and  distinctly  evident 
divergences  that  separate  the  more  remotely  connected 
varieties,  furnish  the  basis  for  their  classification  and 
nomenclature  by  the  systematic  conchologist.  Molluscan 
shells,  being  so  extensively  preserved  in  the  fossil  state, 
furnish  the  geologist  with  invaluable  data  for  his  deter- 
mination of  the  age  and  respective  relationship  of  the 
fossil-bearing  strata  of  the  earth's  crust. 

Having  no  jointed  limbs,  molluscs  are  dependent  upon 
some  other  mechanical  adaptation  for  their  powers  of  loco- 
motion. This,  in  the  majority  of  species,  is  represented  by 
a  modification  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  animal's  body, 

339 


Phtit  n  If.  SavitU-Ktni,  F.2.S. 

AN    OCTOPUS    CROUCHING 
IN    A   ROCK-POOL 

Green  shore-crabs  constitute  the  chief  food  of 


Phtl,  tj  If.  Sj:i'.'.--Kint,  F.Z.S 

AN  OCTOPUS  ON  ITS  BACK  AT 

BAY,   LEFT   HIGH   AND  DRY  BV 

THE  RETREATING  TIDE 

/»  this  attitude  the  octopus  can  use  its  many-suckcrcd 
tentacles  and  its  formidable  parrot- 
like  beak  as  defensive  'weapons 


340       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fit,,,  kj  If.  Stllllt-XiK:,  t.Z.S. 

OCTOPODS 
A  tlut-tfettta  Witt  Auaralia*  ifteiei 

particular  modification  of  the  locomorfve 
organ,  or  foot,  serves,  on  the  one  hand,  to 
readily  distinguish  the  first  or  most  highly 
organised  group  from  the  second  or  central 
class;  while  the  third  or  lowest  one  is  as 
clearly  separated  from  the  second  and  first  by 
the  character  of  the  shell.  The  first  and  most 
highly  developed  section  includes  such  species 
as  the  Octopus,  the  Cuttle-fish,  the  Squid, 
and  the  several  varieties  of  Nautiluses;  to 
the  second  or  central  group  are  referred 
all  the  marine  and  terrestrial  Slugs  and 
Snails  with  their  innumerable  modifications; 
while  the  third  and  lowest  group  comprises 
all  the  double-shelled  or  bivalve  forms,  such 
as  Oysters  and  Mussels. 

In  the  OCTOPUS  and  its  allies  the  creeping- 
base,  or  foot,  is  prolonged  round  its  margin 
into  eight  or  more  arm-like  extensions.  The 
anterior  of  these  in  the  earlier  phases  of  their 
development  grow  round  and  enclose  the 
mouth,  which  consequently  opens  upon  the 
centre  of  the  locomotive  surface.  The  arms 
of  the  octopus  and  other  forms  are  in  ni"-t 
instances  provided  throughout  their  length 
with  complex  sucking-disks,  wherewith  thrir 
owners  can  seize  and  retain  their  prey  or 
walk  with  case  and  celerity  over  the  smoothest 
perpendicular  or  overhanging  rock-surfaces. 
The  octopus,  as  the  type  of  its  class,  possesses 


which  is  so  richly  supplied  with  muscular 
tissues  as  to  constitute  an  effective  creeping- 
base.  As  a  locomotive  organ  this  muscular 
area  is  usually  known  as  the  "  foot." 

Of  living  molluscs  some  50,000  distinct 
species  have  been  recorded.  The  great 
majority  of  these  organisms  are,  as  is  well 
known,  marine.  A  very  considerable  number, 
however,  are  inhabitants  of  fresh-water ;  while 
a  yet  smaller  proportion,  like  the  Slugs  and 
Snails  and  their  allies,  are  especially  adapted 
for  a  terrestrial  existence.  Kxcepting  two 
relatively  small  and  inconspicuous  groups,  the 
great  natural  division  or  sub-kingdom  of 
Molluscs  is  separated  by  systematic  zoologists 
;nto  three  main  sections  or  classes.  The 


flMth  W.  Stvllli-Kiit,  F.Z.S.]  [_Mllf,rd->n.ttm 

A   TASMANIAN   SQUID,    OR  CUTTLE-FISH 

Giant  ifXfift  cf  lyuiJt  kai-t  hem  reforjtj  in  w4rV4   'ht  tkorttr  tentacle* 
mttliurtJ  .Jjeft^  and  tkt  nvo  longtr  crttt  at  ».«at  A  at 
JO  or  jtifitt  in 


SHELL-FISH,    OR    MOLLUSCS 


341 


yet  another  most  effective  locomotive  organ.  This  is  the  so-called  funnel,  or  siphuncle,  a 
membranous  tube  connected  with  .the  capacious  gill-cavity  which  is  formed  by  a  folding  of  the 
mantle  on  the  under-surface.  When  at  rest  or  moving  leisurely,  the  water  taken  in  through  the 
pocket-like  entrance  to  this  cavity  is  discharged  through  the  funnel  without  any  particular 
effort.  The  animal  can,  however,  at  will  leave  go  its  attachment  to  the  rocks,  and  propel 
itself  swiftly  through  water  by  successive  forcible  expulsions  of  the  water  through  the  funnel. 
By  directing  the  aperture  of  the  funnel  to  the  right  or  left,  the  creature  can  also  direct  its 
course  in  whatever  direction  it  desires.  When  thus  swimming,  its  translation  is  necessarily 
backwards.  Another  notable  feature  of  the  octopus  is  the  "  ink-bag,"  a  huge  gland  secreting 
an  inky-black  fluid,  which,  as  produced  by  the  common  cuttle-fish,  constitutes  the  sepia  of 
commerce.  The  contents  of  the  ink-bag  are  discharged  through  the  funnel  at  the  will  of  the 
animal ;  as  soon  as  the  ink  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  water,  it  becomes  distributed 
through  it  in  the  form  of  a  thick  cloud,  under  cover  of  which  the  mollusc  makes  good  its 
escape  from  any  attacking  enemy. 

The  octopus  in  British  seas  by  no  means  attains  to  its  maximum  growth.  Examples  with 
arms  from  2  to  2\  feet  in  length  are  accounted  large  specimens.  In  Mediterranean  waters, 
however,  these  dimensions  are  much  exceeded,  individuals  with  arms  5  feet  long,  which  are 
capable  of  covering  a  circular  area  no  less  than  10  feet  in  diameter  with  their  fully  extended 
appendages,  being  frequently  recorded.  In  the  West  Indies,  on  the  North-west  American  coast, 
and  also  in  Chinese  seas,  similar,  if  not  larger  dimensions  are  attained  by  these  creatures. 
That  these  monster  octopods,  or  "  devil-fish,"  as  they  are' sometimes  designated,  prove  a  source 
of  danger  to  human  life  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated.  Lurking,  as  is  their  custom, 
among  rock-crevices,  they  seize  hold  of  any  moving  object  which  approaches  within  reach  of  their 
extended  arms.  Bathers  in  this  manner  have  been  seized  and  drowned,  it  being  impossible  for 
even  the  strongest  swimmer  to  free  himself  from  the  clutches  of  one  of  these  animals,  which, 
while  retaining  a  firm  hold  on  the  rocks  with  a  portion  of  its  hundred-suckered  arms,  has 
entwined  the  others  around  its  victim. 

The  natural  food  of  the  octopus  are  crabs,  lobsters,  and  their  like;  and  in  places  like 
the  Channel  Islands,  where  the  tide  retires  very 
low,  leaving  the  rock-fissures  inhabited  by  the 
molluscs  more  or  less  exposed,  their  presence  may 
be  often  foretold  by  the  accumulation  of  empty, 
broken-up  crab-shells  around  the  entrances  to  their 
retreats.  In  common  with  other  members  of  its 
tribe,  the  octopus  is  furnished  with  a  strong,  horny, 
parrot-like  beak,  wherewith  it  can  with  ease  break 
through  the  shells  of  its  accustomed  food.  The 
year  1900  was  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary 
abundance  of  the  octopus  on  the  English  south 
coast,  the  result  of  their  collective  depredations 
very  seriously  affecting  the  local  crab  and  lobster 
fisheries.  The  pots  laid  down  over  night,  in  place 
of  yielding  the  following  morning  their  customary 
quota  of  marketable  crustaceans,  were  more  often 
than  otherwise  found  to  contain  nothing  but 
broken-up  shells  and  a  loathsome  "  devil-fish." 

The  SQUIDS  and  CUTTLE-FISHES,  with  their 
large  lustrous  eyes,  are  especially  adapted  for  an 
open  sea  life,  and  for  this  purpose  are  furnished 

with  lateral  fin-like  membranous    expansions.     A     .  «„„»,  w.  savm.-K,*,,  FZ.S. 
more  important  structural  distinction  is  their  pos-     SHELL    OF    THE    PEARLY    NAUTILUS 
session  of  two  supplementary  appendages,  which,  Ttt  liar  Bn*f»f  ttii  ttttt  it  trOBtufy  iriJnciM 


342       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


fli.i,  A.  If.  S,vlll~Xnt,  r  Z.S. 

SHELL   OF    THE   ARGONAUT,   OR 
PAPER-NAUTILUS 

Tkt  ftmalt  animal  only  fouttttt  a  skill,  and  uiei  it  ai  a  cradle 
for  her  eggl  and  young 


usually  retracted  within  special  pouches  when 
not  in  use,  can  be  shot  out  to  a  length  at 
least  twice  that  of  the  eight  ordinary  arms. 
Both  the  cuttle-fish  and  the  squid,  or  cala- 
mary,  are  also  the  possessors  of  an  internal 
calcareous  or  horny  shell  which  underlies 
and  strengthens  the  upper-surface.  The 
cuttle-bone  used  as  a  dentifrice  and  ink- 
eraser  is  the  product  of  the  first-named 
mollusc.  The  Ten-armed  group,  as  it  is 
named,  with  reference  to  the  two  supple- 
mentary arms,  ten  in  all,  possessed  by  its 
members,  is  notable  for  including  species 
whose  dimensions  not  only  exceed  those  of 
any  other  invertebrate  type,  but  whose  fully 
extended  length  rivals  that  of  the  lar 
vertebrates.  Giant  squids,  or  calamaries,  have 
been  taken  off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
yielding,  with  their  tentacular  arms  extended, 
a  linear  measurement  of  over  50  feet,  asso- 
ciated with  an  estimated  weight  of  as  much 
as  1,000  Ibs.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
these  giant  squids  have  in  many  instances 
furnished  the  basis  of  the  oft-recurrent  sea-serpent  stories,  more  especially  on  those  occasions 
where  the  supposed  marine  reptile  and  a  whale  have  been  reported  as  seen  engaged  in  combat. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  sperm-whales  habitually  feed  on  deep-sea  squids,  and  have  been 
known,  when  mortally  wounded,  to  vomit  forth  detached  portions  of  these  gigantic  molluscs. 
The  long  tentacular  arms  of  one  of  these  monsters,  thrown  around  the  whale  with  which  it 
had  entered  upon  a  death-struggle,  might  at  a  little  distance  be  easily  mistaken  for  some 
huge  snake-like  organism. 

The  various  species  of  NAUTILUS,  including  the  so-called  "  Paper"  and  "  Pearly"  species, 
belong  likewise  to  this  group  of  Molluscs.  In  the  former  case,  however,  it  is  only  the  female 
animal  which  secretes  a  shell,  and  this  is  used  as  a  cradle  wherein  she  deposits  her  eggs  and 
rears  her  young.  The  pretty  romance  of  the  PAPER-NAUTILUS,  or  Akd  IN  Ml ,  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  floating  on  the  sun-lit  waves  with  spreading  sails  and  an  even  keel,  has  unfortunately 
been  entirely  dissipated  by  the  penetrating  search-light  of  modern  science.  The  animal  only 
floats  on  the  surface  when  ill,  or  when  torn  from  its  customary  pasture-fields  by  abnormal 
storms,  otherwise  it  creeps  about  the  sea-bottom,  or  disports  itself  in  the  sub-marine  grottoes 
like  an  ordinary  octopus,  with  which,  in  point  of  fact,  the  shell-less  male  agrees  in  all  essential 
details.  The  shell-cradle  of  the  paper-nautilus  is  not  vitally  connected  with  the  body  of  the 
animal,  as  is  that  of  the  pearly  species  and  all  ordinary  shell-fish.  It  is  freely  detachable 
from  the  body,  and  during  life  is  grasped  and  held  closely  to  it  by  the  expanded  extremities 
of  the  two  lateral  tentacles  by  which  the  delicate  shell  is  mainly  secreted. 

The  next  group  comprises  the  great  bulk  of  Simple-shelled  Molluscs,  of  which  it  is 
impossible  in  these  pages  to  give  more  than  a  brief  enumeration  of  some  of  the  nmst 
prominent.  The  Lung-breathing  section,  which  is  usually  awarded  the  first  place  on  the  list, 
includes  the  familiar  (i.\ki>i  \ --\  \n  s,  th<-  Sin  i  i.-i  i  ^  Si  i  OS,  the  I-"ui->n-\v  \n  R  SNAILS  which 
come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  and  many  distinct  terrestrial  species.  The  large-t  living  repre- 
sentative of  this  group  is  the  huge  I.\NI> --\\n.  of  tropical  West  Africa,  sometimes  known  as 
the  Ao.Vl  1 -^NAII  ,  tlie  slu-11  of  which  is  not  infrequently  .is  much  as  ;.',  inches  lung. 

The  N.AKKIMill  I  I  \<  Si  \---i  UGS  (.institute  a  second  clearly  defined  group.  All  the  species 
are  essentially  marine,  and  most  abundant  among  seaweeds  and  coral-growths.  They  are 


Phai  kj  W.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.  Z.  S.] 

LIMPETS,    WHELKS,    AND    BARNACLES 

On  the  recks  at  llfracvmbe  ivhen  the  tide  was  lotu 


Phuui  h  1C.  Savtllt-Ktnt,  F.Z.S. 

GREAT    CLAM-SHELL    ON    CORAL- 
REEF 

The  loft  parti  have  been  removed  to  show  the  size  of  *ht  shell 
and  the  pure  'whiteness  of  the  interior 


[Milford-tn-Sia 

SHELL     BEACH,    ABROLHOS    ISLANDS 

Composed  of  iridescent  t^-sHeils 


GIANT   CLAM-SHELLS    ON    THE 

GREAT    BARRIER    REEF,     AS    EXPOSED 

AT    EXTREME   LOW    TIDE 

The  shell  in  the  foreground  is  4  feet  in  dijmt'.f 


343 


344       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


notable  for  the  slug-like  form  of  their  body,  which  is  usually  supplemented  by  the  out- 
growth from  it  of  complex,  variously  modified  "ill-filaments.  In  some  species  these  exter- 
nal gills  take  the  form  of  symmetrical  flower-like  tufts  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  back, 
while  in  others  simple  or  variously  branched  gills  may  be  developed  on  the  upper-surface. 
The  colours  of  many  of  these  sea-slugs  are  more  brilliant  than  those  of  any  other  molluscs, 
this  being  especially  the  case  with  the  tropical  coral-reef-frequenting  species.  Bright  scarlet, 
yellows,  and  blues,  separately  or  variously  combined,  are  among  the  dominant  tints.  Many 
of  these  tropical  species  are  also  of  considerable  size.  One  particular  kind,  having  a  flower- 
like  dorsal  gill-tuft,  observed  by  the  writer  on  the  West  Australian  reefs,  was  over  10  inches 
long  and  8  inches  broad.  Its  general  ground-colour  was  intense  vermilion,  relieved,  however, 
by  a  frilled  border  nearly  an  inch  in  width  of  the  purest  white,  with  radiating  streaks  of 
scarlet.  It  is  an  interesting  circumstance  that  these  naked-gilled  molluscs,  shell-less  so  far 

as  their  adult  phases  are  concerned,  emerge 
from  the  egg  with  a  perfectly  formed,  but  neces- 
sarily very  minute,  transparent  shell,  resembling 
that  of  a  garden-snail.  It  is  consequently  inferred 
that  the  group  has  been  derived  from  some  per- 
manently shell-bearing  form. 

The  Comb-gilled  section  embraces  the  great 
majority  of  the  marine  molluscs  having  a  single 
more  or  less  convoluted  or  spirally  twisted  shell. 
They  take  their  name  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  gills  have  a  compactly  disposed  comb- 
like  contour.  This  gill-tuft  is  situated  in  an 
excavated  chamber  inside  the  shell,  immediately 
over  the  neck.  The  COMMON  WHELK,  the 
PELICAN'S-]  <">i  SlIKI.l.,  and  the  \Vi\KI.K  are  a 
few  typical  Hritish  marine  representatives  of  this 
group,  which,  however,  attains  to  the  zenith  of 
its  development  in  the  size,  variety  of  form,  and 
ornate  coloration  of  its  shells  in  tropical  seas. 
The  inter-tropical  coral-reefs  in  particular  yield 
a  most  abundant  harvest  in  this  direction.  The 
shells  in  common  use  obtained  from  such  a 
source  include  the  ponderous  HELMET-SHELLS,  or 
CoNCHS,  employed  for  the  manufacture  ofcamcos ; 
the  GIANT  WHELKS  and  TRrMi'i:i->in:i.i.s.  often 
over  1 8  inches  long,  used  as  signal-horns  through- 
out Polynesia  and  on  the  tropical  "Australian 
coast;  and  the  capacious  Ml  I  <  >N--III:U.S,  made 
to  do  duty  for  boat-baling  and  as  water-vessels  and  general  domestic  receptacles  throughout 
the  same  tropical  area.  To  this  list  may  be  added  the  HARP-SHELLS.  Voi.ru-,  CONES, 
MITRES,  OLIVES,  THORNY  WOI.IM  ...  KS,  and  a  host  of  others  prized  by  the  concholo^ist 
To  this  section  must  also  be  referred  the  innumerable  species  of  COWRIES,  of  which  the  large, 
boldly  mottled  "  TK;ER  "  and  "  PANTHER"  species  are  well  known.  The  comparatively  small, 
yellowish,  thickly  built,  porcelain-like  shell  of  the  "  MI  >M  v-<  •  >\\  KII  "  constitutes,  as  is  well 
known,  the  current  coin  throughout  extensive  areas  of  Africa  and  India.  It  is  recorded  that  as 
large  a  quantity  as  sixty  tons  of  these  small  shells,  originally  collected  from  tropical  seas.  li.i\r 
been  shipped  from  one  Hritish  port  alone  to  the  African  coast  for  commercial  use  within  a 
single  year.  One  very  diminutive  cowrie,  pale  pink  in  colour,  with  a  delicately  streaked  surface, 
is  indigenous  to  Hritish  waters. 

The  third   large   group   of  Molluscs   which  demands  attention   is   that  of  the  Hivalvcs,  or 


.  A'.rt,,  F.Z.S.]  lM///.r<t-«i.t>« 

HIGHLY    MAGNIFIED    TONGUE 

OF   A   SEA-SNAIL 

W~itk  ikii  tincture  in  m-ier  terei  ar  jilti  a  Me  through 
lit  lilt  Hi  ef  stlltr  mtlluitl  lift*  viUck  it  frejt 


SHELL- FISH,    OR    MOLLUSCS 


345 


Phtte  t>}  W.  Savill,-K<r,t,  F.Z.S.]  \_Milf,rd-m-S,i 

A    SCORPION-SHELL 

Closely  allied  to  the  ll  Pelican '  s  Foot  " 


Leaf-gilled  group.  Though  not  so  numerous 
in  species  as  the  last,  it  outrivals  it  in  the 
enormous  abundance  in  which  the  individuals 
of  many  varieties  are  produced.  OYSTERS, 
MUSSELS,  COCKLES,  SCALLOPS,  and  other 
allied  forms  occur  in  closely  associated 
colonies,  constituting  natural  "beds"  or 
"  banks,"  which  may  be  of  vast  extent  and, 
in  at  any  rate  the  case  of  oysters,  several 
feet  in  thickness.  From  a  commercial  and 
economic  standpoint  this  group  is  un- 
doubtedly of  the  highest  importance  to  the 
human  race.  Not  only  do  its  members,  as 
instanced  by  the  foregoing  forms,  contribute 
largely  to  the  world's  commissariat,  they  also 
yield  the  much-prized  material  known  as  "  mother-of-pearl  "  and  the  purest  and  most  aesthetically 
beautiful  gems  —  orient  pearls.  Pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  are  the  products  of  two  groups 
of  shell-fish,  respectively  known  as  PEARL-OYSTERS  and  PEARL-MUSSELS.  There  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  species,  mainly  denizens  of  tropical  seas,  which,  like  ordinary  oysters  and 
mussels,  occur  naturally  in  banks  and  beds  of  vast  extent.  In  some  species,  such  as  the  CEYLON 
PEARL-OYSTER,  the  shell  is  small,  and  the  mother-of-pearl  substance,  or  "  nacre,"  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  so  thin  as  to  be  of  relatively  little  value.  Hence  the  fishery  for  this  species  is 
conducted  almost  exclusively  for  the  sake  of  the  pearls,  which  are  fairly  numerous  and 
frequently  of  the  finest  quality.  From  the  tropical  Australian  seas  pearl-shells  of  the  largest 
size,  which  produce  the  thickest  and  most  valuable  mother-of-pearl,  are  obtained.  Pearls 
of  the  best  quality  are  more  rarely  found  in  this  description  of  shell,  and  its  fishery  is 
prosecuted  primarily  on  account  of  the  substantial  substance  and  magnificent  quality  of  its 
nacre.  A  single  pair  of  shells  of  this  species  will  attain  in  its  adult  state  to  a  weight  of 
from  12  to  1 8  Ibs.  The  fishery  for  this  pearl-shell  has,  however,  been  prosecuted  so  relent- 
lessly that  bivalves  of  such  matured  age  and  weight  are  now  of  rare  occurrence,  and  obtained 
only  from  almost  inaccessibly  deep  waters.  Unless,  in  point  of  fact,  systematic  methods  of 
conservation  and  cultivation  are  resorted  to  on  an  extensive  scale  and  on  lines  corresponding 
fundamentally  with  those  successfully  followed  in  the  culture  of  ordinary  commercial  oysters, 
there  would  seem  to  be  an  imminent  risk  of  the  valuable  Australian  pearl-shell  fisheries 
becoming  depleted  to  more  or  less  complete  exhaustion. 

The  tropical  Australian  seas,  and  notably  those  which  wash  the  Great  Barrier  Reef,  are 
famous  for  the  production  of  the  largest  of  living  bivalve  molluscs.  These  are  represented  by 
the  GlANT  CLAMS,  which,  dwelling  among  the  coral-growths,  are  left  exposed  to  view  for  brief 
periods  during  abnormally  low  spring  tides.  A  photograph  of  a  colony  of  these  monster 

bivalves,  taken  by  the  writer 
amidst  this  mollusc's  char- 
acteristic surroundings,  is  re- 
produced on  page  741.  The 
example  in  the  foreground 
measured  no  less  than  4 
feet  in  diameter  and  weighed 
several  hundred-weights.  In 
many  clams  the  living  tissues, 
or  mantle-borders,  that  are 

n.i.iyir.saviiil-K,nt,F.zs.  exposed    to    view    when    the 

ROCK-OYSTERS  shell-valves  are    partly  open, 

This  is  the  ordinary  commercial  oyster  of  the  Australian  thores  are    brilliantly    tinted. 


346      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


ll.*.ICiml.  f.Z.S.\ 

A   QUEENSLAND    OYSTER-BANK 

miktr  iktracuntiit  grvwtk-pkau  of  tkt  Auiiraliaa  nck-oyacr 


Of  the  SCALLOPS  many  of 

the  larger  species  are  highly 
esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is 
notable  of  them  that  they  can 
progress  through  the  water 
in  a  jerky,  flight-like  manner 
by  the  repeated  flapping  of 
their  opposing  shells.  In 
many  scallops  the  jewel-like 
eyes  are  developed  in  a  row 
round  the  margin  of  the 
mantle. 

The  Bivalve  Class  in- 
cludes certain  representatives 
which  are  held  in  evil  repute,  on  account  of  their  destructive  habits.  PMOI.AS  and  its  allies 
bore  their  way  into  solid  rock,  bringing  about  its  complete  disintegration.  From  the  dreaded 
SHIP-WORM,  or  TEREDO,  on  the  other  hand,  there  would  appear  to  be  no  description  of  wood 
that  can  withstand  its  ravages. 

The  Bivalve  Molluscs  are  not  without  fresh-water  representatives.  The  well-known  P<>\i>- 
and  RIVER-MUSSELS,  which  form  the  most  conspicuous  examples  of  this  group,  number  several 
hundred  species.  While  insipid  and  of  no  account  for  the  human  commissariat,  many  of  its 
members  produce  pearls  of  value.  One  such,  obtained  from  the  river  Conway,  in  North  Wales, 
is  said  to  occupy  a  place  in  the  crown  of  England. 

The  CHITONS,  or  MULTIVALVE  MOLLUSCS,  invite  brief  notice.  As  the  last-named  title 
implies,  the  shell-elements  in  this  group  are  relatively  numerous,  consisting  of  eight  pieces, 
or  plates,  which  may  form  contiguous  transverse  shelly  shields  that  entirely  cover  in  and 
protect  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  elongate,  boat-shaped  body,  or  may  be  more  or  less  isolated 
from  one  another.  In  the  former  instance  the  animal  bears  some  considerable  resemblance  to 
a  gigantic  limbless  wood  louse,  and,  like  that  familiar  terrestrial  crustacean,  it  is  capable  of 
rolling  itself  into  a  spheroidal  shape  as  a  means  of  protection.  None  of  the  chitons  are 
provided  with  eyes  in  the  adult  state  in  that  region  of  their  body  —  namely,  the  head  —  where 
they  might  be  most  naturally  expected  to  exist.  Recent  scientific  investigation  has,  however, 
elicited  the  fact  that  in  various  species  the  respective  shell-plates  are  studded  with  minute 
eye-specks,  the  aggregate  number  of  visual  organs  thus  possessed  by  certain  forms  reaching  to 
the  astonishing  figures  of  11,000  or  12,000.  The  majority  of  the  chitons  are  shallow-water, 
rock-frequenting  molluscs,  which  may  be  successfully  sought  by  turning  over  stones  at  low 
water. 

CHAPTER     II 
LAMP-SHELLS 

A  LITTLE  group  of  double-shelled  creatures,  formerly  regarded  as  near  allies  of  the  Oysters 
and  Mussels,  are  the  LAMP-SIIKI.I.S.  Their  scientific  appellation,  signifying  "arm-footed," 
relates  to  the  two  spirally  convoluted  arm-like  structures  which  constitute  the  salient 
features  in  these  animals.  That  of  lamp-shells  bears  reference  to  tin-  small  circular  perforation 
near  the  extremity,  or  "  beak,"  of  the  united  shells,  which  imparts  to  the  entire  structure  i 
not  altogether  remote  resemblance  to  an  ancient  Greek  or  Roman  lamp  with  its  sub-terminal 
wick-hole.  In  all  essential  points  of  their  organi-ation  the  1  imp-shells  differ  s,,  essentially 
from  ordinary  bivalves  that  they  are  now  generally  recognised  as  representing  an  independent 
animal  class,  having,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  closer  relationship  with  Worms  than  with  Molluscs. 
In  their  earlier  condition  certain  lamp-shells  are  indistinguishable  from  larval  worms;  while 
the  convoluted  arms  of  the  adult  animals,  thickly  beset  with  bristles  and  hairs,  closely  resemble 


fnoln  h  V-  Savllli-Kmt,  F.Z.S.] 

SOUTHERN    CROSS    PEARL, 

VALUED    AT    ,£10,000 

Cellists  of  nine  laterally  united  pearh  corresponding 
in  shape  and  st-ze 


fntltt  tj  W.  Savilli-Knt,  t.Z.S. 

QUEENSLAND    PEARLS    ON    BLACK- 
LIPPED    PEARL-SHELL 


PEARL-SHELL   WITH    GROUP    OF 
GOLDEN    PEARLS 

Many  thousand  shells  may  he  opened  without  finding  a  sirgle  peat  I 


PEARL   PRODUCED    BY    OPERATION 
ON    THE   ANIMAL 


The  black-lipped  shell  produces  pearls  of  great  -value  Tke  pearl  produced  is  a  solid  hemispherical  or  "  button  " '  pearl 


347 


348      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


the  arms,  or  "  cirrhi,"  of  many  sea-worms.  The  superadded  valves  of  the  lamp-shells  differ 
fundamentally  from  those  of  the  bivalve  molluscs  in  the  circumstance  that  they  are  developed 
upon  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  respectively  of  the  enclosed  animal,  and  not  on  the  sides. 
The  union  between  the  two  valves  is  also  accomplished  through  the  medium  of  interlocking 
calcareous  teeth,  in  place  of  a  horny  or  ligameiitous  hinge-joint,  as  obtains  in  an  oyster  or 
a  mussel.  A  supplementary  calcareous  support,  having  a  corresponding  spiral  shape,  is  also 
developed  in  connection  with  the  convoluted  arms.  This  structure  varies  in  the  contour  of 
its  minuter  details  in  every  specific  form,  which  thus  furnishes  zoologists  with  a  basis  for 
systematic  classification.  The  lamp-shells  collectively  form  two  natural  groups  or  orders.  In 
one  of  these  the  shells  are  hinged  together,  and  are  of  conspicuously  unequal  dimensions. 
The  larger  shell  of  the  two  is  more  distinctly  concave  and  produced  into  a  perforated  beak. 
It  is  this  structure  that  in  some  species  resembles  the  wick-hole  of  an  antique  lamp,  and  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  title  by  which  these  shells  are  distinguished.  The  second  or 
hingelcss  group  is  further  distinguished  by  the  shells  being  of  almost  uniform  shape  and  size. 
In  the  most  interesting  example  of  this  group,  known  as  LlNGULA,  the  two  shells  are  thin, 
horny,  of  a  green  tint,  and  mounted  on  a  long,  flexible,  worm-like  stalk.  Like  a  worm,  this 
creature  moves  about  in  the  mud,  and  constructs  a  sand-lined  dwelling-tube. 

Although  lamp-shells  are  represented  by  comparatively  few  species  at  the  present  day,  in 
the  older  epochs  they  existed  in  enormous  abundance.  It  is  further  remarkable  of  this  group 
that  many  species  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  their  fossil  ancestors.  Lingula,  the  type 
last  referred  to,  is  especially  notable  in  this  respect. 


CHAPTER  III 

STJR-FISHES,    SEJ-URCHLVS,    ETC. 

THE  somewhat  varied  assemblage  of  marine  animals  familiarly  known  as  STAR-FISH KS, 
FEATHER-STARS,  BRITTLE-STARS,    SEA-URCHINS,    and  SEA-CTI  i MIU.RS    ,,11    agree 
structurally  with  one  another  and  differ  from  all  other  living  organisms  in  several  con- 
spicuous features.     Prominent  among   these  is  the  circumstance  that  their  protecting  skin  is 
more  or  less  extensively  impregnated  externally  and  strengthened  internally  with  calcareous  ele- 
ments which  take  the  form  of  plates   and    spines 
and  spicules. 

The  COMMON  SIA-IKI  IIIN  may  be  cited  as 
an  example  in  which  these  calcareous  elements 
attain  their  maximum  development.  The  sub- 
spherical  box-like  case  or  shell,  wherein  all  the 
vital  organs  are  enclosed  and  safely  protected,  is 
a  common  object  of  tin-  seashore,  and.  empty  and 
denuded  of  its  external  coating  of  prickly  spines, 
familiarly  known  as  a  "  sea-egg."  Examined  closely, 
this  shell  is  found  to  consist  of  a  series  of  cal- 
careous plates,  which  dovetail  or  tit  together  in 
juxtaposition  with  the  utmost  nicety.  The  surface 
of  the  shell  is  studded  throughout  with  rounded 
hemispherical  knobs,  those  of  a  larger  si/e  having 
a  very  distinctly  symmetrical  plan  of  distribution. 
These  rounded  knobs  are  the  liases  of  attachment 
of  the'  spines,  which  radiate  at  all  points  from 
the  -in  face  of  the  shell  when  the  animal  is 
alive.  It  will  be  further  recognised  on  a  nearer 
•••  iftein  i,  tuJ /a, load  in  ital,  **d<ak,r  Cc*ri*eiiiat «,***<„  examination  that  the  walls  of  the  shell  are  pierced 


COMMON    OR    SHORT-SPINED 
SEA-URCHIN 


STAR-FISHES,    SEA-URCHINS,    ETC. 


349 


on  a  definitely  symmetrical  pattern  with  minute  perforations,  such  perforations  being  most 
distinctly  visible  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell.  These  minute  punctures  are  the 
apertures  through  which  in  life  the  delicate  tubular  locomotive  organs,  or  so-called  "  feet," 
are  thrust  out  and  retracted.  The  majority  of  these  tubular  organs  terminate  in  a  circular 
sucking-disk,  wherewith,  collectively,  the  urchin  is  able  to  adhere  to  and  travel  over  the 
surface  of  the  smoothest  rock,  or  even  up  the  glass  walls  of  an  aquarium.  In  the  empty 
beach-gathered  urchin-shell  a  circular  hole  may  be  observed  at  the  two  opposite  poles,  the 
one  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  and  flatter  surface  being  the  larger  of  the  two.  It  is  within 
this  lower  and  larger  one  that  the  mouth,  with  its  complex  apparatus  of  teeth,  is  suspended. 


i 


-     ,*_?*   .-^ 


-  %&£ 


Pn,t>k;  If.  Saiiilli-Kint,  F.Z.S. 


LONG-SPINED    SEA-URCHINS 


The  need'.e-Ukc  spines  of  these  sea-urchins  are  over  a  foot  in  length.      Acres  of  these  creatures  may  be  sometimes  seen  on  tidally  exposed 
areas  of  the  Queensland  Great  Earner  Reef,  tvhere  this  photograph  ivas  taken 

The    membranous    disk  which    covers    the    upper  and  smaller  circular  aperture  in  the  living 
animal  is  perforated  centrally  by  the  vent,  and  around  it  are  grouped  the  eye-spots  and  sundry 
excretory  apertures. 

A  noteworthy  feature  associated  with  the  greater  portion  of  the  structural  details  of  the 
sea-urchin  which  have  been  enumerated  is  the  dominance  of  the  number  five  in  the  constituent 
elements.  It  is  found,  for  instance,  that  the  perforated  areas  through  which  the  tube-feet  are 
protruded  form,  as  with  the  petals  and  other  elements  of  many  flowers,  five  symmetrically 
corresponding  segments.  The  dental  apparatus  comprises  five  equivalent  tooth-like  structures, 
and  there  are  five  eye-spots  and  five  excretory  apertures  at  the  upper  pole.  This  particular 
number,  with  multiples  of  the  same,  is  furthermore  characteristic  of  all  the  typical  members 
23 


350      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


!,  F.Z.S.] 

THICK-SPINED    SEA-URCHIN 

In  large  ifecimeni  tkt  if  inn  are  ai  thick  at  a  tlaie-ftnci/,  and  may  be  uud 
for  tke  tame  purpeu 


of  the  class.  Thus,  in  the  COMMON 
Si  \k-KI  si  I,  there  arc  five  so-called  arms, 
five  eye-spots,  one  at  the  tip  of  each 
arm,  and  nve  equivalent  elemental 
components  of  all  the  more  impor- 
t  nit  viscera.  In  the  SEA-CWl  MM  RS, 
which  have  elongate  worm-like  bodies, 
there  is  a  similar  apportionment  of 
the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  body 
generally  into  fives,  and  also  of  the 
branching  tentacles  which  surround 
the  mouth.  Tubular  locomotive  organ*, 
the  so-called  "  tube-feet,"  are  common 
to  all  the  three  types  enumerated. 
The  calcareous  plates  and  spin 
while  attaining  to  a  maximum  develop- 
ment  in  the  urchins,  are  also  abundantly 
represented  in  the  other  groups.  In 
the  common  star-fish  these  calcareous 
elements  form  within  the  skin  an 
openly  reticulated  trellis-like  frame- 
work, while  in  the  ordinary  sea- 
cucumbers  they  more  usually  take  the  form  of  innumerable  microscopically  minute  spiculcs. 
The  two  less  familiarly  known  groups  of  the  FEATHER-STARS  and  BRITTLE-STARS  fully  agree 
with  the  previously  enumerated  types  in  their  five-fold  structural  composition.  The  brittle- 
stars  have  almost  invariably  five  arms  only,  but  they  are  independent  outgrowths  from  the 
body  proper,  instead  of  being  prolongations  of  it,  as  in  the  common  star-fish. 

The  FEATHER-STARS,  which  include  some  of  the  rarest  anil  most  beautiful  representatives 
of  the  group,  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  and  remarkable  for  the  circumstance  that 
either  throughout  life  or  in  their  early  phases  they  are  affixed  to  submarine  objects  by  slender 
stalks.  This  peculiarity  imparts  to  the  animals  such  a  flower-like  aspect  that,  in  conjunction 
with  the  indurated  calcareous  nature  of  their  skeletons,  they  have  received  the  title  of 
"  Stone-lilies."  This  appellation,  however,  was  originally  more  particularly  applied  to  their 
fossilised  remains,  which  occur  in  remarkable  abundance  in  the  older  geological  strata. 

The  most  familiar  representative  of  the  group  is  the  ROSY  FEATHER-STAK.  occasionally 
obtained  among  seaweed  in  rock-pools  on  the  southern  coast,  but  more  often  brought  up  with 
the  dredge  from  deeper  water.  In  this  form  the  elongate  feather-like  amis  radiate  from  the 
central,  relatively  small,  five-rayed  body.  There  is  no  supporting  foot-stalk  in  this  adult  st. 
the  animal  being  freely  movable,  and  clinging  to  seaweeds  and  other  objects  by*  means  of  a 
cluster  of  claw-like  filaments  developed  upon  its  under-surface.  Releasing  its  IK  .Id  upon 
its  temporarily  selected  position,  it  can  crawl  about  with  the  aid  of  the  hooked  extremities  of 
its  arms  and  their  radiating  joints.  It  can  also  propel  itself  through  the  water  in  a  somewhat 
clumsy  fashion  by  the  consecutive  flexion  and  extension  of  these  appendages.  This  freedom 
of  locomotion  was  not,  however,  always  possessed  by  the  feather-star.  In  its  early  day-,  and 
when  of  very  small  size,  it  was  affixed  to  a  slender  foot-stalk,  and  dependent  for  its  food  on 
the  animalcules  and  other  minute  organisms  which  drifted  or  swam  within  reach  of  its  extended 
arms.  The  rosy  feather-star  takes  its  name  from  the  bright  rose-red  tints  by  which  it  is 
usually  characterised.  Individuals  of  the  species  are,  however,  subject  to  considerable  colour- 
variation.  On  the  Australian  coast,  where  many  forms  are  abundantly  represented,  examples 
tinted  deep  crimson,  black,  bright  golden  yellow,  or  sundry  admixtures  of  these  several  hues 
are  not  uncommonly  found  associated  among  a  dredge-haul  of  these  elegant  sea-stars. 

The  I'l-KMAM  \TI.Y  STALKED  Sl»M-l  II.II>  are  at  the  present  day  of  ''are  occurrence.   I'p 


STAR-FISHES,    SEA-URCHINS,    ETC. 


351 


Photo  bi   N.  LaKarnick]  [titw   r*r 

STAR-FISH    IN    WATER 

If  fulled  to  pieces,  each  of  the  five  arms,  or  fingers,  'will 
grow  into  a  ferject  star-fish 


to  within  comparatively  recent  years  the  so-called 

MEDUSA'S-HEAD  LILY  was,  indeed,  regarded  as 

the  only  living  representative  of  the  group.    This 

species  has   a  pentagonal  jointed  foot-stalk  that 

may  be  3  feet  long,  with  five  slender  appendages 

developed  in  whorls  at  short  sub-equal  distances 

throughout   its  length.     From  the   shallow  cup- 
shaped  body  at  the  apex  of  the  stalk  a  tassel-like 

bundle  of  arms  is  developed,  all  of  these  being 

produced   by   repeated   bifurcation  from  one  of 

the  five  equivalent  basal  stem-joints.     Dredging 

expeditions    have    within    the    last  quarter    of  a 

century  revealed  the  existence  of  a  considerable 

number  of  previously  unknown  species  of  stone- 
lilies  in  the  abysses  of  the  ocean,  a  depth  of  no 

less  than  3,200  fathoms  representing  the  habitat 

of  one  such  type. 

The    Star-fish   group  is  represented   by  the 

COMMON  FIVE-FINGERS,  or  CROSS-FISH,  as  it  is 

sometimes  called,  and  includes  a  very  numerous 

assemblage  of  species  of  varying  size  and  shape 

and   colour.     The  British  seas   alone  yield  some 

twenty  forms.     Among  the  more  notable  of  these 

is  the  SUN  STAR-FISH,  which,  departing  from  the 

rule   of  possessing  five  arms  only,  has  twelve  or  more,  its  contour,  from  which  it  derives  its 

name,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  a  symbolic  sun.     The  colours  of  this  species  are  particularly 

brilliant,   consisting    usually   of  a  variably  patterned   admixture   of  crimson,  pink,   and   white. 

An  extreme  contrast  in  contour  to  the  sun-star  is 
presented  by  the  so-called  BIRD'S-FOOT  species,  in 
which  the  body  is  pentagonal  and  so  flattened  out 
as  to  somewhat  resemble  the  foot  of  a  duck.  In 
the  CUSHION-STARS  the  body,  while  pentagonal,  is 
comparatively  thick. 

The  so-called  SxAKE-ARMED  SAND-STARS  and 
BRITTLE-STARS  constitute  a  section  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  the  character  of  the  arms, 
which  branch  separately  from  the  central  body,  and 
are  composed  of  an  innumerable  series  of  calcareous 
joints,  which  snap  asunder  under  the  slightest 
provocation.  The  great  majority  of  the  species  are 
provided  with  five  simple  arms  only.  In  an  ex- 
ceptional form,  however,  known  as  the  SHETLAND 
ARGUS,  and  its  allies,  these  five  arms,  while  simple 
at  their  base,  bifurcate  repeatedly  and  in  geometrical 
progression  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  in  life 
a  complex  network  of  writhing,  snake-like  tendrils, 
that  has  been  appropriately  likened  to  a  Medusa's 
head.  It  has  been  calculated  that  there  are  no 
less  than  80,000  terminal  arm-subdivisions  in  adult 
examples  of  this  species. 

Among  the  Sea-urchin  Tribe  there  are 
many  notable  departures  from  the  typical  form 


fhiu  k;  E.  Cmnalf] 


l.  Lemardi 


STAR-FISH,    OUT    OF    WATER, 
TURNING    OVER 

The  sucker-tiffed  tubes  ivith  'which  the  star-fish  effects 
locomotion  are  ivell  shown  in  this  photograph 


352       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


previously  referred  to.  In  some,  while  the  sub-spheroidal  form  of  the  case,  or  test,  is 
still  retained,  the  external  spiny  armature  is  greatly  varied.  In  one  series  these  spines  are 
exceedingly  long,  slender,  and  of  needle-like  contour  and  sharpness.  In  others,  while  long,  they 
are  abnormally  thick  and  cylindrical,  somewhat  resembling  slate-pencils,  for  which  they  are 
sometimes  used  as  a  substitute;  or  they  may  be  club-shaped,  branched,  or  reduced  to 
flattened  plates.  In  other  forms  the  shell  itself  is  conspicuously  modified.  With  some  known 
a-  HIMTIT-  <>r  (.'  .\Ki:-iK(  HINS  it  is  flattened  out  to  the  resemblance  of  a  cake  or  biscuit,  the 
spines  being  minute  and  inconspicuous.  In  another  group,  distinguished  as  HKART-VRI  IIIN>, 
the  shell  is  oval  and  bilaterally  symmetrical,  though  the  dominant  number  of  five  still  holds 
good  with  regard  to  the  building  up  of  its  structural  details.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
is  the  I.EATllER-l'Rriux,  so  called  on  account  of  the  flexible  and  loosely  jointed  character  of 
its  shell,  the  way  being  paved  by  such  a  form  to  the  normally  soft-  and  flexible-skinned 
sea-cucumbers.  Sea-urchins  are  to  a  great  extent  vegetable-feeders,  and  the  larger  species  are 
appreciated  as  an  article  of  food  in  many  countries,  the  ovaries,  or  roe,  with  which  at  certain 
periods  the  shell  is  mostly  filled,  forming  the  edible  portion. 

The  SEA-ITCUMHERS —  better  known  in  the. 
commercial  world  as  Bechc-de-mer,  orTrepang 
represent  the  only  group  which  possesses  a 
substantial  market-value.  Its  typical  mcmb 
present  an  elongate  worm-like  contour,  but  pro- 
gress by  means  of  extensile  tube-feet,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Urchins  and  Star-fishes,  and 
have  their  dental,  nervous,  and  muscular  systems 
fashioned  on  the  same  five-sectioned  basis.  The 
mouth,  which  is  situated  at  one  extremity  of  the 
body,  is  surrounded  by  a  series  of  ten  or  twenty 
delicately  branched  or  mop-like  tentacles,  which 
can  be  protruded  or  retracted  at  the  animal's 
will,  and  are  used  for  seizing  food.  The  skin  of 
the  typical  sea-cucumber  is  more  or  less  soft  and 
flexible,  and  has  embedded  within  its  substance 
innumerable  minute  calcareous  spinulcs. 

The  commercially  valuable  sea-cucumbers,  or 
be'che-de-mcr,  are  all  inhabitants  of  tropical  water--. 
the  North-eastern  Australian  coast  and  the  Malay 
seas  yielding  the  most  highly  prized  forms.  The 
Queensland  Great  Harrier  Reef,  consisting*  of  a 
series  of  coral-reefs  extending  for  upwards  of  1,000  miles  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
Australian  mainland,  represents  one  of  the  most  productive  areas  for  this  marine  delicacy,  the 
bulk  of  which  goes  to  the  Chinese  market.  The  fishery  is  prosecuted  with  the  assistance 
mainly  of  the  Queensland  natives,  who,  either  by  diving  or  wailing  on  the  reefs  at  low  tide, 
collect  the  creatures  in  vast  quantities.  On  being  brought  to  the  curing-stations,  the  animals 
are  emptied  from  the  collecting-sacks  into  large  caldrons,  when  tin -y  are  allowed  to  stew  in 
their  own  juice  for  about  twenty  minutes.  Taken  out  of  the  caldrons,  they  are  split  open  and 
eviscerated,  dried  for  a  short  interval  in  the  sun,  and  then  placed  in  tiers  on  wire  gratings  in 
a  smoke-house,  where  they  remain  for  twenty-four  hours.  They  should  at  this  stage  have 
shrunk  up  to  about  one  quarter  of  their  normally  extended  si/.e,  much  resemble  charred  sausages 
in  aspect,  and  should  rattle  like  dry  walnuts  when  bagged  up  for  exportation.  From  £50  to 
;£  1 50  per  ton  are  the  prices  that  the  better  qualities  of  luVhe-de-mer  realise  when  well  cured 
and  delivered  at  Chinese  ports.  The  chief  culinary  use  to  which  the  cured  sea-cucumbers  are 
applied  is  that  of  the  concoction  of  soup,  the  best  quality  prepared  taking  rank  with  that 
made  from  swallows'  nests.  At  the  hotels  .mil  clubs  in  the  leading  Australian  cities  heche- 


^^^^^ 


-~^+»*~++j^r 

-^^^^^L 


flM.  Jr,  If.  Stvlti..fnt,  f.Z.f.)  \\tit(.Td-**-<it* 

A   YOUNG    BRITTLE   STAR-FISH 
(MUCH    MAGNIFIED) 

Tit  mrmi  tf  ike  brittle-aari  art  comfosrd  of  loouly  fitting, 
readily  fradu  red  joint  t 


STAR-FISHES,    SEA-URCHINS,    ETC. 


353 


de-mer  soup  is  held  in  high  favour,  and  its  more 
extensive  introduction  onthe  menu-cards  of  Western 
civilisation  may  be  only  a  question  of  time. 

Many  species  of  sea-cucumbers  inhabit  British 
seas,  but  none  possess  that  density  of  tissue  which 
is  essential  for  their  economic  conservation ;  the 
majority,  moreover,  are  of  comparatively  small  size, 
some  few  inches  long  only  when  fully  extended, 
whereas  the  commercially  valuable  tropical  ones  may 
measure  as  much  as  from  2  to  3  feet.  The  mode  of 
feeding  of  sea-cucumbers  is  somewhat  interesting; 
the  smaller  species,  with  much-branching  tentacles, 
generally  affix  themselves  by  their  tube-feet  to 
some  object,  and,  extending  their  tentacles  in  all 
directions,  utilise  them,  like  those  of  a  sea- 
anemone,  for  seizing  any  minute  and  suitable  prey 
which  may  strike  against  them.  The  microscopic 
organisms  on  which  they  chiefly  feed  abound  in 
the  waters  they  inhabit,  and  one  after  the  other, 
the  branched  tentacles  having  effected  a  capture, 
are  gathered  together  and  tucked  bodily  into  the 
creature's  central  mouth  and  apparently  half-way 
down  its  throat.  The  larger  coral-frequenting 
species  are  provided  mostly  with  mop-shaped 
tentacles.  They  crawl  about  leisurely  in  search  of 
their  food,  mopping  over  the  ground,  and  gathering 
up  in  their  tentacles  the  minute  shells  and  other 
organisms  on  which  they  subsist,  which  are  col- 
lectively thrust  with  an  indrawn  tentacle  into  the 


tj  W.  Savill,-KM,  F.Z.S.~\ 

BRANCHING-ARMED 


[Milford-  en-Sta 

BRITTLE-STAR 


The  specimen  is  attached  to  a  brilliant  scarlet  sponge 


>l>  h;  If.  S<ivtll<-K,nl,  F.Z.S. 

SEA-CUCUMBERS,    SOME   WITH 
EXTENDED    TENTACLES 

West  Australian  species  "whose  colours  are  bright  pink  and yclloiv 


throat.  In  some  of  the  lower  forms  the  tube- 
feet  have  disappeared,  the  integument  is  thin 
and  semi-transparent,  and  the  worm-like  animal 
crawls  about  by  means  of  its  skin-spinules, 
which  take  the  form  of  anchors  or  grappling- 
hooks.  In  an  opposite  direction  they  may 
develop  a  supplementary  covering  of  dermal 
plates  and  a  more  rigid  integument,  which 
indicate  their  nearer  relationship  with  sea- 
urchins. 

The  majority  of  sea-urchins  and  star- 
fishes pass  through  a  series  of  interesting 
metamorphoses  before  arriving  at  the  adult 
state.  The  larval  phases  in  these  instances 
are  free-swimming  organisms,  having  arm-like 
processes,  strengthened  by  calcareous  rods 
that  have  been  likened  in  contour  to  a  clock- 
stand.  A  small  spherical  central  area,  like  a 
clock  in  its  case,  representing  the  stomach  of 
the  larva,  develops  spicules  around  it,  and 
becomes  the  body  of  the  urchin,  the  other 


354       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


SEA-CUCUMBER,    OR    BECHE-DE-MER 

"Tkne  animalt  art  collected  in  vast  ouantitiei  OH  the  Australian  Great  Barrier 
Kief,  tmoteJ,  and  unl  la  tat  Ckintu  market 


outlying  portions  becoming 
gradually  absorbed.     Some  of 

^^f"    ^&&9^^  the  .  brittle-stars    and   sea- 

^^0  ^^^^  cucumbers    bring    forth    their 

^|  _K  ^^.'  ^|W  Jlfllfe.  young     in     the     adult     form, 

nursing  them  from  the  egg  in 
special  breeding-chambers. 

The  capacity  of  a  star-fish 
to  renew  its  lost  arms  is 
commonly  manifested.  Asingle 
detached  arm,  moreover,  in  such 
a  type  as  the  common  live- 
fingered  species,  can  reproduce 
its  body  and  the  remaining  t'  >ur 
arms.  Fishermen,  who  arc  in 
the  habit  of  tearing  up  star- 
fishes and  throwing  them  back 
into  the  water,  under  the  im- 
pression that  they  arc  thus 
effectually  incapacitating  thrm 
from  further  injury  to  their 
oyster-beds,  commit  an  error, 
such  mutilation  tending  to  the 
multiplication  of  their  nunibn  s. 
In  the  matter  of  colour-ornamentation  the  Star-fish  group  is  richly  endowed.  Allusion 
to  the  brilliant  crimson  and  pink-and-white  tints  of  the  British  sun  star-fish  has  been 
already  made.  As  with  most  animal  groups,  however,  it  is  amid  their  tropical  representatives 
that  the  most  striking  colour-variations  obtain.  One  form  which  is  common  among  the  coral- 
reefs  on  the  Queensland  coast-line,  and  much  resembles  the  common  Britisli  "  five-fingers " 
in  size  and  shape,  is  brilliant  ultramarine-blue.  Another  large  pentagonal  species,  belonging  to 
the  group  known  as  Cushion- 
stars,  has  a  golden-brown 
ground,  upon  which  are 
thickly  scattered  small  bead- 
like  tubercles  of  turquoise. 
A  third  form,  not  <jn- 
common  on  the  Tasmanian 
coast-line,  which  is  nearly 
related  to  the  Bird's-foot 
species,  previously  mentioned, 
is  distinguished  by  tints  which 
range  through  several  shades 
of  crimson  to  brilliant  violet. 
Not  a  few  of  the  star- 
fishes are  notable  for  their 
eminent  phosphorescent 
properties.  The  group  of 
the  Snake-armed  and  Brittle- 
stars  are  more  especially 
distinguished  in  this  respect. 
M.my  of  these  species 
occur  in  such  numbers  in 


*>  If.  Si:<lli-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.] 


[Mtlfi 


PRICKLY    SEA-CUCUMBER 

T*ii  tferiei  tf  kitke-de-mir  commandi  a  kigk  price  in  Ckina,  and  makti  delificui  uuf 


STAR-FISHES,    SEA-URCHINS,    ETC. 


355 


,  bj  1C.  Savillt-Knt,  f.Z.S. 


BLACK    SEA-CUCUMBER 


This  photograph  luas  taken  through  the  ivatcr  in  a  coral-pool .     A  large  clam-shell,  lu'tth  its  expanded  fringe  of  tentacles, 

is  close  beside  the  sea-cucumber 

comparatively  deep  water  that  the  dredge  may  be  filled  with  a  tangled  mass  of  their  writhing 
snake-armed  bodies.  Should  it  be  night  when  the  dredge  is  brought  aboard,  and  its  contents 
are  emptied  upon  the  deck,  the  spectacle  presented  as  the  star-fishes  scramble  in  all  direc- 
tions, their  bodies  and  arms  aglow  with  pale  green  or  blue  phosphoric  coruscations,  is  highly 
remarkable. 

CHAPTER  IV 

MOSS-ANIMALS 

A  LITTLE  group  of  animals  whose  relationship  with  the  sub-divisions  previously  and 
hereafter  described  cannot  be  very  definitely  determined  is  that  of  the  MOSS-ANIMALS, 
sometimes  designated  CORALLINES,  or  LACE-CORALS.  All  its  members  are  of  exceed- 
ingly minute  size,  and  if  living  separately  would  be  scarcely  discernible  to  the  unaided  vision. 
They  are,  however,  in  the  habit  of  forming  stocks,  or  colonies,  after  the  manner  of  corals, 
by  a  process  of  continual  budding,  and  in  this  way  build  up  social  aggregations  which  may 
be  of  considerable  dimensions.  The  majority  are  marine,  and  largely  in  evidence  on  almost 
every  seashore  in  the  form  of  the  so-called  SEA-MATS,  consisting  of  masses  of  minute,  light 
brown,  horny  cells,  which  take  the  form  of  seaweeds,  or  are  spread  in  thin,  lace-like 
encrustations  upon  the  surfaces  of  shells,  stones,  and  the  larger  seaweeds.  The  living 
inhabitants  of  these  cells  are  as  transparent  as  glass,  their  most  characteristic  feature  being 
the  elegant  shuttle-cock-shaped  crown  of  tentacles  which  is  thrust  out  or  withdrawn  at  will 
from  the  aperture  of  each  tiny  tenement.  The  assistance  of  the  microscope  is  requisite  for 
the  apprehension  of  these  details,  as  also  of  the  somewhat  complex  alimentary  and  other 
organs  enclosed  within  the  component  cells. 


356      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 

A  comparatively  small 
number  of  these  moss-animals 
are  inhabitants  of  fresh-water, 
forming  brown  tubular  aggre- 
gations on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  of  water-lilies  or 
other  submerged  objects.  It 
is  interesting  to  observe  that 
the  tentacular  crown  in  almost 
all  these  fresh-water  species 
is  horseshoe-shaped,  instead  ^f 
like  a  shuttle-cock,  as  in  the 
marine  forms.  One  very  not- 
able fresh-water  species  is  re- 
markable for  the  circumstance 
that  in  place  of  horny  tubes 
the  component  individuals 
secrete  a  common  trail-parent 
gelatinous  matrix,  which  is 
provided  with  a  crecping-ba-e, 
wherewith  the  colony-stock  is 
enabled  to  travel  over  the 

surfaces   of  the   water-plants  among   which  it  lives,  or  up  the    glass   sides   of  an   aquarium. 

In   some  respects,  and  more  especially  their  earlier  developmental  phases,  the   Moss  animals 

show  affinities  with    the  Lamp-shells,  while  the  tentacular  crown  of   the   adult   individual   is 

closely  imitated  in  certain  worms. 


!•*•/• 


MOSS-ANIMALS 

Tkeie  coral-Hie  masses  are  tomfoied  of  man?  thousand  closely  united  dwelling- 
cells  of  microscopic  dimension! 


CHAPTER  V 

H'ORMS 

THE  WORMS  and  their  allies  embrace  a  numerous  assemblage  of  animals  which  exhibit  a 
remarkable  amount  of  variation  both  in  structure  and  habits.    A  fundamental  distinction 
which  serves  to  separate  readily  even  the  most  highly  organised  members  of  the  group 
from  the   other  articulate  or  jointed-bodied  animals,    such  as   Crabs,   Insects,   or  Centipedes 
is  furnished  by  the  character  of  the  locomotive  appendages.     These  in  the  Worm  Tribe  never 
assume  a  jointed  character,  but  take  the  form  of  unjointed  membranous  processes  which  maj- 
or may  not  be  supplemented  by  bristles.     Frequently  bristles   alone   constitute    the    essential 
locomotive  organs.     In  certain  groups,  such  as  the  Leeches,  Flat-worms,  Thread-worms,  and 
others,  even  these  are  unrepresented. 

The  appropriate  title  of  BRISTLK-WOUMS  has  been  conferred  upon  the  section  in  which 
the  locomotive  organs  take  the  form  of  bristles.  Among  tlie-e  the  COMMON  KAKTII-WOKM  is 
included.  At  first  sight  the  worm's  body  appears  to  be  perfectly  smooth  and  naked;  it 
is  found,  however,  on  closer  investigation  to  be  furnished,  according  to  the  species,  with 
either  two  or  four  longitudinal  rows  of  fine,  hook-like  bristles.  Although  these  bristles 
project  but  slightly  above  the  surface  of  the  skin,  they  constitute  very  effective  aids  to 
locomotion,  enabling  the  animal  to  obtain  a  secure  grip  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground 
over  which  it  may  be  traveling.  Progression  under  such  conditions  is  effected,  in  fact,  on 
the  same  principle  as  that  of  the  snake,  the  ends  of  the  stiff  bristles  with  which  the  segments 
are  armed  fulfilling  the  same  role  as  the  projecting  edges  of  the  reptile's  scales.  I.arth- 
worms  are  chiefly  vegetable-feeders,  dragging  into  their  holes  fallen  leave-;,  straws,  and  every 


WORMS 


357 


other  description  of  vegetable  debris.  They  also  swallow  and  pass  through  their  systems  large 
quantities  of  earth,  absorbing  from  it  its  organic  constituents,  and  depositing  the  indigestible 
residuum  therefrom  in  the  form  of  "  earth-casts."  The  useful  function  thus  performed  by 
worms  in  bringing  up  earth  from  considerable  depths  and  redepositing  it  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ground  has  been  fully  demonstrated  in  one  of  Mr.  Darwin's  works.  There  are  some  twenty 
species  of  British  earth-worms,  none  of  which,  however,  attain  to  the  proportions  of  certain 
kinds  indigenous  to  Australia  and  South  Africa.  Some  of  these  giant  species  are  as  much  as 
3  or  4  feet  long  when  unexterided,  and  will  on  the  stretch  measure  twice  such  lengths.  Their 
thickness,  which  is  proportionate,  may  vary  from  that  of  a  man's  finger  to  that  of  an  ordinary 
sausage. 

The    most    numerically  abundant  and    structurally  varied    representatives  of  the    bristle- 
bearing    worms    are    inhabitants    of  the    sea,  and    are    divisible   into    two    easily    recognised 
natural    groups.      In    one    of 
these    the    animals    resemble 

earth-worms    in    their  ability  >^H  ^^. 

to  move  about  freely  from 
place  to  place.  In  the  other 
group  they  secrete  and  per- 
manently reside  within  a  tu- 
bular edifice,  which  may  be 
calcareous  and  of  shell-like 
hardness,  or  composed  of  par- 
ticles of  sand,  mud,  or  other 
substances.  The  free-roving 
group,  which  embraces  by  far 
the  larger  number,  includes 
such  forms  as  the  LUG-WORM, 
or  LOB-WORM  (held  in  high 
repute  for  fishing-baits),  and 
a  host  of  other  allied  species. 
In  all  of  these  the  develop- 
ment of  bristles  and  other 
appendages  is  more  pro- 
i-xinccd  than  in  the  Earth- 
worms. In  another  group, 
known  as  the  NEREIDS,  the 
elongate  worm-like  body  is 
more  or  less  flattened  in  shape  ; 
unjointed  leg-like  appendages, 
supplemented  by  bristles,  are 
developed  from  the  majority  of  the  segments,  and  the  animal  presents  a  somewhat  centipede- 
like  aspect.  This  likeness  is  further  enhanced  by  the  presence  of  antennae-like  organs  at  the 
anterior  extremity,  while  the  mouth  is  armed  internally  with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed,  horny 
jaws.  In  many  of  the  nereids  the  lateral  organs  are  flattened  out  and  paddle-like,  constituting 
effective  swimming-structures.  Some  of  the  larger  species  attain  a  length  of  several  feet,  and 
are  especially  noteworthy  for  the  brilliantly  iridescent  tinting  of  their  skins.  The  palm  of  beauty 
with  respect  to  its  brilliant  colouring  must  undoubtedly,  however,  be  awarded  to  the  so-called 
SEA-MOUSE,  frequently  cast  up  by  storms  on  the  British  coast.  In  this  creature  the  body  is 
comparatively  short  and  thick,  3  or  4  inches  long  by  i.V  to  2  inches  wide.  The  centre 
of  the  back  is  covered  in  by  a  felt-like  mass  of  fine  interlacing  hairs  of  a  brownish  hue. 
underneath  which  are  broad,  flat  scales  which  protect  the  breathing-apparatus.  The  sides  arc, 
however,  thickly  clothed  with  long,  slender  hairs  and  bristles,  each  of  which  reflects  the 


Phte  ly  If.  Savlllt-Knu,  F.Z.S.] 

TUBE-WORMS 

Somt  with  their  Jioivcr-like  gill-tufts  expanded 


[Milftrd-an-Sta 


358      THE     LIVING     ANIMALS     OF     THE    WORLD 


iwi/r..r,i.,,.  In 


IT.  SmOlfftmt.  r  2  8.1 

SEA-WORMS.   OR   NEREIDS 

Tluir  immmmerai>le  "false /tit"  impart  ta  tktm  a  centipede-like  aspect 


most    brilliant    prismatic 
tints. 

The  T  t  r.  1  -n\\  BLLING 
\\'di<MS  arc  note-worthy  for 
the  elegant  anil  often  beau- 
tifully coloured  flower-like 
gill-tuft  with  which  the  head 
is  crowned.  Its  separate 
filaments  are  clothed  with 
vibrating  hairs,  which  en-ate 
currents  bringing  food-par- 
ticles to  the  mouth  In  those 
forms  which  build  up  a  hard 
calcareous  dwelling-tube,  one 
of  the  gill-filaments  is  usually 
SO  modifu-d  as  to  constitute 
a  stopper-like  organ,  \\hcre- 
with  the  animal, on  retreating 
into  its  domicile,  can  effectu- 
ally bar  out  the  ingress  of  in- 
truders. In  some  members  of  the  group  the  gill-tufts  are  elegantly  branched  and  supplemented 
by  long,  simple,  thread-like  filaments,  that  are  thrust  out  to  long  distance*  in  every  direction 
both  for  food  and  the  materials  required  for  the  further  lengthening  and  enlargement  of  the  tube 
The  LEKCHKS  differ  essentially  from  the  Bristle-worms  in  the  absence  of  bristle*  or 
supplementary  appendages,  in  the  presence  of  an  adhesive  sucking-disk  at  the  posterior  and 
sometimes  also  the  anterior  extremity,  and  on  their  well-known  blood-sucking  propensities. 
While  the  MEDICINAL  and  so-called  HORSE-LEECHES  inhabit  fresh  water,  some,  more  espe- 
cially in  tropical  countries,  infest  the  moist  jungles  and  scrubs  in  vast  numbers,  and  are  among 
the  most  actively  aggressive  pests  with  which  the  traveler  has  to  contend  A  few  leeches  also 
inhabit  the  sea,  preying  upon  the  skate  and  other  fishes.  The  bodies  of  these  marine  species 
are  cylindrical,  with  a  sucker  at  each  extremity,  and  roughly  corrugated  or  warted. 

The  FLAT- WORMS  embrace  a  large  number  of  intestinal  and  other  parasitic  species,  includ- 
ing TAPE  WORMS,  THREAD-    ^^M 
WORMS,  LIVER-FLUKES,  and 
others.  Among  the  free-living 
non-parasitic  members  of  this 
group,  the  so-called    INDIA- 
RfHHER-WORM  is  remarkable 
forthe  extraordinary  elasticity 
of  its  tissue*.      Black  in  hue, 
it  lives  among  rocks  and  - 
weeds,  and  preys  upon  small 
fishes  and    other   organisms 
These    being    seized    by   the 
suctorial  mouth  are  unable  to 
effect  their  escape,  the  worm's 
body  being  capable  of  stretch- 
ing out  to  a  length  of  20  f<  <  t 
or  more,  and  "  playing"  the 
captured  victim   like  a  living    ^^ 

<-la*tic    fishing-line    until    it-  sr  \-MICE 

struggles  are  i-xhau-:  „,„„„.  ,,.ilh ,..  ,„ 


.  4r  W.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.Z.S. 

PORTION     OF    THE    GREAT    BARRIER    REEF    OF    AUSTRALIA 

Shoiving  soft  or  leat hery  and  other  corah 


that  by  tf.  StVlllt-Slnt,   f.'/..  S.]  [.\(,J»orJ-on.\«, 

ANOTHER    PORTION    OF    THE    GREAT    BARRIER    REEF 

Composed  chiefly  of  stages-horn  corals.       This  coral  -varies  in  colour ,  being  sometimes  brown  with  'white  tif>st  in  other 
instances  grass-green  or  even  brilliant  violet 

359 


360       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


W 


Fkat  h  tf.  StvUlt-Knt,  T.Z.S, 

A    MUSHROOM-CORAL    FULLY    EXPANDED 

In  ikii  condition  the  coral,  or  tkeleton  of  ike  animal,  it  entirely  concealed 


CHAPTER    VI 

CORJLS,     SEJ-JNEMONES,    AND 
JELLT-F1SHES 

'ITH  the  Sea-anemone-  and 
Jelly-fishes  almost  tin  h  >\\  est 
organised  group  of  living 
animals  is  reached.  As  typified  b\  an 
ordinary  sea-anemone,  the  bodv  mav 
be  described  as  a  simple  sac,  the 
orifice  of  which  is  inverted  for  some 
little  distance,  and  held  in  position 
with  relation  to  the  outer  wall  by  a 
series  of  radiating  partitions.  On 
more  rows  of  tentacles,  varying  in 
number  and  character  according  to  the 
species,  surround  the  mouth  of  this 
partially  inverted  sac.  There  is  n<> 
distinct  intestinal  track,  the  whole 
space  enclosed  within  the  outer  wall 
and  ramifying  among  the  radiating 
partitions  containing  the  di^e-tive 
juices.  The  radiating  membranous 
partitions  develop  upon  their  surfaces  the  reproductive  elements,  and  in  the  case  of  Corals, 
which  arc  merely  skeleton-producing 
sea-anemones,  partly  secrete  within 
them  the  symmetrical  radiating  cal- 
careous plates  so  characteristic  of  the 
group. 

Some  thirty  odd  species  of  sea- 
anemones  arc  indigenous  to  British 
waters,  and  one  or  more  of  these 
will  be  familiar  to  most  readers.  The 
STRA  \vnKkkY-ANK.\K  >.\K,  clinging  to  the 
rocks  as  a  hemispherical  lump  of 
crimson,  green,  brown,  or  red  and 
yellow  speckled  jelly  when  the  tide  is 
down,  and  expanding  like  a  beautiful 
flower  when  the  waters  flow  back  upon 
it,  is  the  commonest  and  in  many 
respects  the  most  beautiful  of  all,  the 
circlet  of  turquoise  beads,  regarded  as 
rudimentary  eyes,  developed  around 
the  outer  margin  of  the  tentacles,  add- 
ing a  charm  possessed  by  few  other 
species.  The  DAHLIA-AM:M<  >NK,  whose 
expanded  disk  and  innumerable  petal- 
like  tentacles  may  measure  as  much  *•«•<•  *••".  »••./.»•. 

as  6   or  8  inches  in    diameter,  is  the     MusHROOM-coR AI.S.    WITH      I'HK    ANEMONE- 
largcst  British  species.     These  dinu-n-  LIKE   Hoi.VH    KX  HANDED 

sions  are,  however,  vastly  exceeded  by  Taken  ikr^k  th,  water  ,n  a  coral-ret/ 


I  W.  Sauilli-Kint,  F.Z.S.] 

PART    OF    THE    GREAT    BARRIER    REEF    OF    AUSTRALIA 

Chiefly  comfosed  of  star-corals,  many  of  them  resembling  human  skulls.      The  Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia ,  consisting  if 
innumerable  detached  reefs  and  coral-islets,  it  over  l,2OO  miles  in  length 

361 


lMilfird-»n-SiJ 


362      THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


/>*.<.*.  W.  Stvllli-Ktnl.  F.Z.S.,[Milf>r<J-,n.Su 

PORTION    OF    A    STAG'S- 
HORN    CORAL 

Hack  minute  circular  all  ripnunli  the  lituatlor. 
im  lift  of  t  null  ua-anemone-Iitt 
animal,  »r  oral-polyp 

stated,  differs  in  no  respect 
from  a  sea-anemone,  except- 
ing for  the  possession  of  a 
calcareous  skeleton  secreted 
within  its  basal  tissues,  includ- 
ing portions  of  the  mem- 
branous radiating  partitions. 
Some  coral-animals,  like  the 
majority  of  the  Anemones,  are 
solitary,  and  form  single  attached 
or  loosely  lying  corals.  The  well- 
known  Mi'SHROOM-cORAl.  is  one 
of  the  latter.  One  species 
observed,  which  was  photo- 
graphed through  the  water  by  the 
writer  as  it  lay  expanded  in  a 
tide-pool  on  the  Australian  Great 
H.irrier  Reef,  might  easily  be 


its  tropical  allies.  The  Australian  coast  produces  giant 
species  which  may  measure  no  less  than  from  18  inches 
to  2  feet  across  their  expanded  disks.  These  giant 
anemones  are  further  interesting  on  account  of  the  cir- 
cumstance that  they  are  self-constituted  "  harbours  of 
refuge "  to  sundry  species  of  fishes  and  crabs,  which 
nestle  among  their  tentacles  like  birds  in  a  leafy  bower. 
The  anemones  are  themselves  bright  in  colour,  but  the 
associated  fishes  are  even  more  so.  In  an  example  which 
was  photographed  by  the  writer  on  the  Western  Australian 
coast,  the  anemone  was  olive-green,  with  the  tips  of  the 
tentacles  bright  mauve.  The  fishes,  of  which  three  examples 
were  present,  were  brilliant  orange-scarlet  with  white 
bands.  In  addition  to  the  fishes  a  small  flat-clawed  crab 
shared  the  sheltering  hospitality  of  the  anemone.  Some 
of  the  tropical  coral-reef-frequenting  anemones,  which  have 
their  tentacles  beautifully  branched,  must  be  cautiously 
handled,  in  consequence  of  their  notable  stinging  pro; 
ties.  All  sea- anemones  and  corals  are,  in  fact,  provided 
with  peculiar  stinging-cells,  with  which  they  benumb  and 
thus  make  an  easy  capture  of  the  living  organisms  on 
which  they  prey.  While  the  majority  of  the  sea-anemoiu-s 
live  single  or  individually  separate  lives,  there  are  some 
which  form  aggregations  or  colony-stocks  of  numerous 
units.  These  compound  growths  are  brought  about  by 
repeated  budding,  or  the  sub-division  or  fission,  without 
complete  separation,  of  an  originally  single  individual.  It 
is  by  a  similar  process  of  recurrent  sub-division  that  the 
wonderful  fabrications  of  the  coral-polyps  are  built  up. 
An  ordinary  coral-animal  or  polyp,  as  previously 


fnuttj  If.  Savllli-Kml,  h  ./..  V. 


A    CLUMP    OF    STAG'S-HORN    CORAL 

Tkt  lift-Maun  if  ikii  ciral  art  a  delicate  cream  itiitk  brilliant  magenta  lift 


CORALS,    SEA-ANEMONES,    AND   JELLY-FISHES       363 

mistaken  for  a  big  sea-anemone  allied  to  the  dahlia-anemone.  On  being  disturbed,  however,  it 
immediately  shrinks  back  upon  its  base,  ejecting  all  the  water  with  which  its  expanded  tissues 
were  filled,  and  revealing  the  presence  of  the  hard  radiating  coral  beneath.  Each  of  the  calcareous 
radii,  which  are  now  clearly  denned  through  the  thin  semi-transparent  skin,  corresponds  in  position 
with  one  of  the  internal  membranous  partitions,  and  also  with  the  origin  of  one  of  the  tentacles. 
New  mushroom-corals  are  produced  as  buds  thrown  off  from  the  parent,  which  attach  themselves 
and  secrete  a  foot-stalk,  to  which  they  remain  affixed,  like  the  young  of  the  feather  star-fish,  for 
the  earlier  epoch  of  their  existence.  Ultimately,  however,  they  become  detached,  and,  falling 
from  their  stalks,  lie  loosely  on  the  sea-bottom,  after  the  manner  of  their  parents.  The  huge 


Woro  *X  #'.  Saviili-Krnt,  F.Z.S.']  [Milftrd-m-Sin 

BLEACHED    CORALS    FROM    THE    GREAT    BARRIER    REEF 

Br~nching  stags-horn  corals  are  chiefly  represented  in  this  group.      Several  of  the  large  solitary  mushroom-corals  may,  however, 

be  observed  in  the  foreground 

coral-masses  commonly  known  as  MADREPORES,  out  of  which  coral-islands  and  reefs  are  con- 
structed, all  commence  as  a  single  coral-animal,  with  its  contained  skeleton  analogous  to  the 
mushroom-coral,  though  in  all  instances  much  smaller.  The  buds  developed  by  the  coral- 
polyp  in  these  instances  remain  attached  to  the  parent.  If  they  spread  out  laterally,  they 
build  up  by  accumulation  the  large  flattened  or  sub-spherical  masses  known  as  BRAIX- 
CORALS  and  STAR-CORALS,  which  are  most  abundant  on  coast-line  reefs,  or  form  the  bases  of 
the  outer  barrier-reefs.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  budding  is  terminal  or  oblique, 
branching  tree-like  growths  such  as  the  STAG'S-HORN  CORALS,  with  their  innumerable  allies 
and  variations,  are  produced.  The  colours  of  the  coral-polyps  are  as  brilliant  and  diverse 
as  those  of  ordinary  sea-anemones,  living  reefs,  whereon  a  number  of  different  species  are 


364       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


in  a  condition  of  healthy  growth,  yielding  a  spectacular  effect  that  vies  with  that  of  any 
floral  parterre.  Sometimes  large  areas,  acres  upon  acres  in  extent,  may  be  covered  with  one 
almost  uniform  purple,  green,  brown,  or  other  coloured  growth  of  the  branching  stag's-horn 
species.  The  aspect  presented  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  heath-covered  common. 

In  addition  to  the  solid,  calcareous-skeletoned  Madrepores,  or  "  Stony  Corals,"  as  they  are 
often  termed,  there  are  a  number  of  species  in  which  a  skeleton  composed  only  of  loosely 

aggregated  calcareous  spicules 
is  produced.  The  so-called 
FI.K.XIHI.K.  CORALS,  or  Si:\- 
l-ANS,  belong  to  this  category, 
as  also  the  precious  CORAL 
<>K  C"MMi:ui  i:.  In  the  last- 
named  species  the  solid, 
brilliantly  coloured  skeleton 
so  much  prized  as  an  article 
of  jewellery  is  deposited  . 
supplementary  basis  outside 
the  tissues  by  which  the  star- 
patterned  skeletons  of  the 
stony  corals  are  secreted. 

A  group  which  demands 
brief    notice    is    that    of   the 

HYDROID        Po|  M'S.          These 

include  the  majority  of  the 
JK.I.I.V-KISMK.S,  a  few  coral- 
secreting  species,  and  tin- 
ganisms  whose  seaweed-like 
horny  skeletons,  known  as  Si  A- 
1  IRS, are,  in  common  with  tin »e 
of  Sea-nuts,  included  among 
the  flotsam  and  jetsam  on 
'  \  cry  -  .1  lieach.  In  the 
COMMON  HYDRA,  or  FRI-II- 
\VATK.K  Poi.Yl',  an  exceptional 
fresh-water  representative  of 
this  group  is  presented.  It  may  be  likened  to  a  tiny  sea-anemone,  having,  when  extended, 
a  slender  foot-stalk  and  long  thread-like  tentacles.  Like  a  sea-anemone,  it  will  shrink  up 
when  disturbed  into  a  mere  button  of  jelly.  Its  organisation  is  more  simple  than  that  of 
the  anemone,  its  body-cavity  being  a  simple  sac,  without  any  intucking  of  the  "orifice,  or 
strengthening  by  supplementary  membranous  partition-.  A  similar  >mipL-  structural  plan 
is  characteristic  of  all  the  organisms  belonging  to  the  series.  An  interesting  phenomenon 
connected  with  the  fresh-water  hydra  is  the  circumstance,  demonstrated  now  over  a  century 
ago,  that,  if  one  of  these  animals  be  cut  up  into  little  pieces,  each  separate  fragment  is 
capable  of  repairing  itself  and  growing  into  a  new  polyp. 

The  jEU.Y-Hsin  5,  or  Mi  IH-A-,  and  their  allies  would  appear  at  first  sight  to  possess  but 
little  structurally  in  common  with  the  Coral-polyps  and  Sea-anemones.  In  their  most  familiar 
form  they  are  represented  by  a  more  or  less  translucent  boll— haped  body,  which  drifts  with 
the  current  or  propels  itself  through  the  water  by  its  alternate  expansions  and  contractions.  In 
the  centre  of  the  lower  surface,  occupying  the  position  of  the  bell's  clapper,  a  polyp-like, 
tubular  mouth  is  usually  discernible,  ami  this  is  frequently  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  tentacles, 
sometimes  simple  and  sometimes  elaborately  ramified.  Long,  thread-like  tentacles  are  also 
commonly  developed  around  the  margin  of  the  swimming-bell. 


&£. 

CySd 


f>ut,h  If.  Snllh-Kinl,  F.Z.S.] 

A    QUEENSLAND    STAR-CORAL 

Tkit  tfefiet  in  life  it  of  a  pale  lemon-yellow  tint 


fhal 


lf.favlUt.Xmi,  F.Z.S.]  [.l/f./.r<i.»n-i,u 

A    GIANT    ANEMONE    FROM    THE    GREAT 
BARRIER    REEF 

From  18  inches  to  2  feet  in  diameter  •when  expanded.      Bright  apple-green  in 
colour,  and  •with  almost  spherical  head-like  tentacles 


CORALS,    SEA-ANEMONES,    AND   JELLY-FISHES       365 

The  larger  number  of  the  jelly- 
fishes  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
transitional  phases  only  of  the  fixed 
hydroid  polyps  previously  referred  to. 
In  certain  instances  the  body  of  the 
fixed  polyp  becomes  elongated,  and 
splits  up  horizontally  into  a  series 
of  jelly-fishes,  or  medusas,  resembling 
a  pile  of  saucers,  which  consecutively 
break  away  and  lead  a  free-roving 
existence.  In  other  forms  a  com- 
pound tree-like  growth  gives  birth 
to  medusa-like  buds,  like  the  flowers 
on  a  plant,  which  ultimately  become 
detached  and  swim  away.  What 
are  known  as  the  COMB-BEARING 
JELLY-FISHES — their  locomotive  or- 
gans consisting  of  comb-like  bands  of 
vibratile  hairs  —  are  especially  note- 
worthy. In  some  of  these  the  body 
is  nearly  spherical  or  ovate,  one  of 
the  species,  in  reference  to  its  shape, 
being  popularly  known  as  the  SEA- 
LEMOX.  A  notable  feature  of  these  medusas  is  their  remarkable  glass-like  transparency,  their 

presence  in  the  water  in  many 
instances  being  recognisable  only 
by  the  prismatic  glimmerings  of 
their  rows  of  vibratile  hairs  when 
the  light  falls  upon  them  at  a 
favourable  angle.  The  most  remark- 
able member  of  this  particular  group 
is  undoubtedly  the  form  known  as 
VENUS'S  GIRDLE.  This  species  takes 
the  form  of  a  long,  ribbon-like  band 
of  transparent  jelly.  The  edges  of 
the  ribbon  are  clothed  with  vibratile 
hairs,  and  the  mouth  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  edges.  The 
animal  progresses  by  the  action  of 
its  hairs  alone,  or  may  be  assisted 
by  the  twistings  and  undulations  of 
its  ribbon-like  body. 

Many  jelly-fishes  possess  an  un- 
enviable reputation  with  reference 
to  their  stinging  properties.  The  so- 
called  PORTUGUESE  MAX-OK-WAR  is 
one  of  the  more  noteworthy  of  these. 
The  organism  consists  of  an  ovately 
pointed  air-bladder,  which  floats  on 
the  water,  and  from  which  depend 
numerous  nutritive  polyps  and  a  mass 
of  cnpturing-filaments,  or  tentacles. 


Phttv  tj  If.  Savil.t-Kinl, 


[MH/lid-in-Si, 


A    GIANT    SEA-ANEMONE 


Uleasures,  "when  opened,  iS  inches  in  diameter.       Is  almost  always  associated  -with 

companion  or  "  commensal"  fish  and  crabs  of  brilliant  colour.       The 

Jish  cruise  round  in  search  of  food,  but  a'iua\s  return  to 

shelter  among  the  anemone 's  tentacles.       Photograph 

taken  through  the  tvater 

24 


THE     LIVING     ANIMALS    OF    THE     WORLD 


T 


C  H  A  P  T  E  R    VII 
SPOXGES  AND   J.\  I.M  f/.cr/.l-.s 

[HE  Sl'ON<;K.s  arc  regarded  as  a  group  standing  on  the  border- 
land between  the  Polyps  and  the  lowly  organisms  which 
follow.  The  familiar  H.vril-  and  T<  ULLT-SIM  >N<.l>  of  com- 
merce represent  but  an  insignificant  fraction  in  comparison  with  the 
many  hundred  species  which  find  no  place  in  the  world's  market. 
Toilet-sponges  owe  their  intrinsic  value  to  the  relative  finem--,  ami 
elasticity  of  their  component  fibrous  skeletons.  In  these  particular 
species  the  skeleton  is  composed  of  a  substance  akin  to  horn.  In 
other  sponges  the  skeleton  may  consist  of  horny  fibres  mixed  with 
flinty  spicules,  or  it  may  be  of  flint  only,  or  of  spicules  of  carbnnat>-  <  *( 
lime.  Finally,  there  are  sponges  which  possess  no  internally  support- 
ing skeleton,  fibrous  or  spicular,  and  whose  substance  is  consequently 
little  more  than  gelatinous.  All  these  numerous  forms,  li<>\\e\er. 
agree  with  one  another  in  the  identity  of  their  most  essential  \  ital 
elements.  In  the  living  sponge  the  skeleton,  fibrous  or  othetuUe, 
is  embedded  within  a  gelatinous  matrix  by  whose  component  cells 
it  is  excreted.  Externally  the  sponge-body  is  perforated  over  the 
greater  portion  of  its  extent 
by  minute  holes  or  pores, 
while  one  or  more  holes  of 
relatively  large  size  occupy 
the  summit  of  the  sponge, 
or  are  scattered  here  and 
there  among  the  numerous 
smaller  pores.  The  smaller 
pores  represent  incurrent  ap- 
ertures, and  lead  to  chambers 
within  the  sponge's  substance 
lined  by  cells.  Each  of  these 
is  provided  with  a  long  whip- 
like  appendage,  with  a  trans- 
parent wineglass-shaped  cup 

or  collar,  which  is  a  beautifully    constructed    food-trap. 

The    lashings    of   the   whips    of    the   collar-cells   cause 

currents  of  water  bearing  nutrient  particles   to  flow  in 

at   all    the   smaller   pores.      Arriving   at   the   chambers, 

these  particles  are  caught  by  the  outstretched  collar-traps 

and    absorbed    into   the    cell's   substance.      The   water, 

together  with  rejected  and  waste  materials  given  off  by 

the  sponge-body,  is  carried  forward,  and  passes  out  at  the 

larger  orifices  or  vent>. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  sponges  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Ni  PTUHB'SH  i  r  SPONGE,  like  a  hu.Lce  chalice 

3    or   4   feet   high,   indigenous   to  the  South  Seas;    the 

wonderful  cornucopia-shaped  I.\ri-.->i'i  >\<;K,  consisting  of 

a   lace-like    reticulation   of  flinty   fibres;    and    its   near 

ally  the  GLASS-ROM:  Si-»\'.r,  forming  a  cup-  or  bird's- 

•  shaped  body,  supported  on  a  long  cylindrical  stalk  "      «•»!.••, u.1 . 


if.  s..v,;,VA-,rr,  F.Z.S., 

Mllftrd-,*.!,* 

FRILLED    SPONGE 


A  tfffifi  fffif  infrequently  Jrc 
mf  kj  ike  ptfrl-s/iell  filter  t  in 
'Sktrki'  Bay,  M^eaern 
jiuttralia 


RETICULA  I  I  D 

Tte  iMflct  of  till  ifKi>ft  ii  ccmfoied 
tltrn\  fihrn  PVjnvMW  rA'jc  of  (.rtiinarj 


SPONGES    AND    ANIMALCULES 


367 


of  flinty  fibres  that  may  be  over  a  foot  in  height. 
One  of  the  compound  or  social  sea-anemones  is  in 
the  habit  of  forming  bark-like  encrustations  on  this 
glassy  stem,  and  it  was  for  a  long  time  doubtful  whether 
the  sea-anemone  or  the  sponge  produced  the  support- 
ing-stalk. 

The  ANIMALCULES,  which  represent  the  simplest 
and  lowest  forms  of  living  animals,  consist  chiefly  of 
organisms  which  are  the  equivalents  of  one  of  the 
single  cells,  or,  as  they  might  be  termed,  the 
"  life-bricks,"  out  of  which  all  the  higher  animals, 
and  also  plants,  are  built  up.  They  are  of  minute 
dimensions,  and  require  the  aid  of  the  microscope 
for  their  proper  investigation.  Among  the  most 
highly  organised  members  of  this  sub-kingdom 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  CILIATED  ANIMALCULES, 

or  INFU- 


fhatt  bj  W.  btvtl.t-Knl,  F.Z.S.~\  [Milfsrd-tn-Sit 

PORTUGUESE    BIRD'S-NEST    SPONGE 

Dredged  from  a  depth  of  600  fathoms  off  the  coast  of 

Portugal,      In  life  the  body,  or  "cup,"  of  this 

sponge  ivas  deep  orange  colour,  from  ivhich 

the  grey  beard-like  mass  of  anchoring 

fibres  depended 


M  k)  E.  C»nn»W]  [  S<.  Lttnardi 

CHALINA    SPONGE 

Composed  partly  of  horny  and  partly  of  flinty  elements 


S  O  R  I  A, 

socalled 
because 
they 
were 
first  dis- 
covered 
inhabit- 
ing de- 
caying 
vege- 
table 
and  ani- 
mal i  n- 
f  u  s  i  o  n  s. 
The  so- 
called 

SLIPPER-ANIMALCULE  is  one  of  the  commonest 
forms  which  makes  its  appearance  amidst  such 
environments.  The  length  of  this  single-celled 
animal  scarcely  averages  the  one-hundredth  part 
of  an  inch,  but  within  this  restricted  space  an 
amazing  degree  of  structural  and  functional 
differentiation  is  included.  Its  outer  surface 
is,  in  the  first  place,  densely  clothed  with  hairs, 
which  represent  its  organs  of  locomotion.  This 
outer  cell-wall  has  a  subjacent  somewhat  softer 
layer,  in  which  are  developed  as  crowded  a  series 
(as  compared  with  the  hairs)  of  minute  rod-like 
bodies,  which,  under  various  stimuli,  can  be  shot 
out  like  darts  through  the  skin,  and  are  adjudged 
to  be  offensive  and  defensive  weapons,  partaking 
much  of  the  same  nature  as  the  thread-  or 
stinging-cells  of  sea-anemones.  Among  other 
noteworthy  structures,  the  slipper-animalcule 


368       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


has  a  distinct  throat-opening,  two  rhythmically  contracting  cavities  fulfilling  a  respiratory 
function  and  a  complex  reproductive  nodule,  or  nucleus.  Compared  with  a  host  of  its  kindred, 
this  animalcule  is  a  giant,  the  longest  diameter  of  many  of  the  smaller  varieties  measuring 
no  more  than  the  Vioooth  part  of  inch,  or  even  less. 

The  elegant  little  BELL-ANIMALCULE,  with  its  crystal  wineglass-shaped  body,  crown 
of  vibrating  hairs,  and  long  spirally  contractile  foot-stalk,  is  a  familiar  object  to  the 
possessor  of  a  microscope.  Most  commonly  these  single-celled  organisms,  like  the  single- 
celled  elements  of  organic  tissues,  multiply  by  repeated  sub-division,  the  number  that 
can  be  reproduced  in  a  short  space  of  time  by  this  simple  process  being  almost 
incredible.  As  many  as  a  million,  it  has  been  calculated,  of  some  species  may  be 
thus  derived  from  an  original  single  individual  within  twenty  hours.  In  this  connection 
these  lowly  organisms  can  among  living  animals  most  logically  lay  claim  to  immortality. 
The  individual,  in  point  of  fact,  never  dies.  Finding  itself  growing  old  and  obese  at 
the  ripe  age  of,  say,  sixty  minutes,  it  has  simply  to  split  itself  up  into  two  ofis 
which  swim  away  and  repeat  the  process.  Occasionally,  for  the  rejuvenescence  of  the 
race,  two  individuals  coalesce  completely  with  one  another,  and  multiplication  by  splitting 
takes  place. 

Some  near  relations  of  the  little  bell-animalcule,  while  sub-dividing  so  far  as  their  bodies 
are  concerned,  remain  united  by  their  foot-stalks,  and  thus  in  time  build  up  beautiful  ti 
like  structures,  laden  as  it  were  with  crystal  bells  or  fruit.  In  some  of  these  the  common 
branching  foot-stalk  is  erect  and  rigid,  while  in  others  it  is  flexible,  and  contains,  as  in  the 
ordinary  species,  a  central  elastic  ligament.  Under  these  circumstances  the  whole  tree-like 
structure,  with  its  crystal  bells,  collapses  and  expands  again  under  the  slightest  stimulus,  and 

constitutes  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  objects  that  can  be 
viewed  through  the  microscope. 
In  lower  forms  of  the 
infusorial  animalcules  one  or 
more  long,  lash-like  organs  take 
the  place  of  locomotive  hairs. 
In  this  category  are  included 
the  ('<>!, i. AI<-];I-:AUIN<;  AMMAI.- 
(Tl.K.s.  Some  of  these  build 
up  tree-like  growths  by  re- 
p'.ited  subdivisions  and  im- 
perfect separation,  after  the 
manner  of  the  bell-animalcules, 
while  others  excrete  tubular 
dwelling-cases,  inhabited  by 
the  resultants  of  the  splitting 
process.  Such  forms  can  with 
difficulty  he  distinguished  from 
skeletonless  sponges. 

The  animalcule  N'H'Ti- 
LUCA,  which  by  it-'  countless 
myriads  is  the  chief  constituent 
of  ocean  phosphorescence,  is  a 
member  of  the  1. ash-bearing 
group.  This  noteworthy  form 
invites  a  someu  hat  more 
extended  notice.  It  is  to  th>- 
presence  of  the  Noctiluca  in 


•d-m-S,, 


CUP-SPONGES,    PHOTOOR  AIMII  I)     AS 

IN      \     i   ORAL-POOL 
f*«  Nrftuae'i-tnf  Sponge,  allitd  It  ikit  iffcrn,  i,  umettmtt  1  or  j  feet  in  litirlll 

mm-  f  <f  * 

and  atamtttr 


SPONGES    AND    ANIMALCULES 


369 


Wolo  ky  If.  Savillt-Ktnt,  F.Z.S.]  [Milford-in-Si* 

SHELLS    OF    FORAMS    HIGHLY  MAGNIFIED 

The  chalk  cliffs  of  Dover  and  many  other  strata  are  mainly 
composed  of  similar  microscopically  minute  shells 


countless  myriads  upon  the  upper  stratum 
of  the  water  on  calm  summer  nights  that  is 
especially  due  the  diffused  form  of  phosphor- 
escence which  is  more  essentially  characteristic 
of  temperate  latitudes.  Under  the  most  favour- 
able of  these  conditions,  the  waves  falling  upon 
the  strand  leave  as  they  retreat  a  glittering 
carpet  of  scintillating  points ;  the  oars  of  the 
passing  boat  seem  as  it  were  to  dip  into  molten 
silver;  while  on  the  high  seas  the  revolving 
screw  or  paddle  of  the  steam-vessel  leaves  in  its 
wake  a  broad,  luminous  track  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach.  A  glassful  of  water  taken  from  the 
sea  at  such  times  immediately  reveals  the  origin 
of  these  wonderful  phenomena.  Here  and  there 
will  be  seen  floating  minute  bladder-like  trans- 
parent spheres,  resembling  as  nearly  as  possible 
small  granules  of  boiled  sago.  Investigated  more 
closely  with  the  microscope,  each  individual 
speck  will  be  found  to  exhibit  a  pouch-like 
contour,  having  a  central  furrow,  from  which  the 
lash  projects,  and  upon  which  the  minute  mouth- 
aperture  opens.  Irritated  by  agitation  ]n  any  shape  or  form,  the  Noctilucas  at  once  respond 
by,  as  it  were,  angry  flashes  of  silvery-greenish  light,  and  it  is  to  the  coruscations  in  their 
aggregate  condition  of  many  millions  of  these  minute  organisms  that  the  several  phenomena 
above  recounted  are  produced. 

One  other  characteristic  manifestation  of  ocean  phosphorescence  dependent  upon  the 
presence  in  countless  numbers  of  these  minute  animalcules  may  be  recorded.  To  those 
accustomed  to  a  seafaring  life  the  spectacle  is  a  common  one,  on  nights  when  the  luminosity 
is  most  in  evidence,  of  fishes  following  or  darting  away  from  the  sides  of  the  vessel  apparently 
aglow  themselves  with  phosphoric  light,  and  leaving  behind  them,  in  accordance  with  their 

size,  a  more  or  less  conspicuous  luminous  path  in 

the  murky  waters.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that 
such  form  of  luminosity  is  emitted  by  the  fishes 
themselves ;  but  on  closer  investigation  it  will  be 
found  that  this  also  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the 
animalcules  under  notice  in  countless  numbers, 
which  are  disturbed  into  a  sudden  display  of 
their  phosphoric  properties  by  the  passage  of  the 
fishes  through  their  midst.  This  light  is  reflected, 
as  from  a  mirror,  by  the  fishes'  glittering  scales, 
while  the  Noctilucas  continue  scintillating  for 
several  seconds  in  the  path  or  wake  through 
which  the  fishes  have  passed. 

There  are  other  animalcules  nearly  allied  to 
Noctilucas  which  sometimes  occur  in  such  vast 
abundance  in  both  salt  and  fresh  water  as  to 
visibly  affect  its  character.  In  addition  to  a  very 
long  lash  they  have  a  girdle  of  vibratile  hairs. 
The  fresh-water  representatives  of  this  group  are 
sometimes  brilliant  green,  at  others  bright  scarlet. 
That  instance  among  the  Biblical  Egyptian  plagues 


Fhtti  ir  W.  Savillt.Ktnl,  F.Z.S.'] 

NOCTILUCAS 


[Milftrd-ix-Sia 


These  are  the  animalcules  which  chiefly  produce  marine 
phosphorescence 


37<>       THE    LIVING    ANIMALS    OF    THE    WORLD 


flia.  h  If.  ttvlllt-Kni,  F.Z.S.] 

POLYCYSTS 

limr-ittli'tJ  orfaniimi  cf  microicoflc  Jimeniitnl.  Tie  tivia; 
tntmaii  ctntttt  of  tiny  sfcckt  of  transpartnt  jelly,  from  wkUk 
rtJialt  imitiimtrahlt  falie  feet  of  Hiiir-likt  fneneu 


in    which    the    water    of  the    Nile  was  as  it  were 
"  turned  to  blood,  and  all  the  fish  died,"  has  been 
attributed  to  a  phenomenal    development  of  these 
animalcules,  which,  on  dying,  polluted  and   putre- 
fied the  water.     Instances  of  fishes  being  desti  • 
in  vast  quantities  through  a  like  agency  through- 
out even  extensive  sea-areas  have  been  occasionally 
recorded.     While  these  pages  are  going  to  p: 
an  account  has  appeared  in  an  American  journal 
of  red  water  caused  by  these  flagellate  animalcules, 
which  occurred   last  July  for  an  extent  of  at  1 
2OO  miles  along  the  coast  of  California,  producing 
with  their  decomposition  a  most  sickening  odour, 
and  the  death  of  shoals  of  fishes,  octopods, 
cucumbers,  and  other  organisms. 

Next  to  the  Flagellates  come  the  K>  ><  >  r-i  i  >• 
ANIMALCULES,  which  possess  no  mouth  and  no 
hairs  or  lashes,  but  progress  by  pushing  out  lobes 
of  their  jelly-like  substance  in  any  desired  direction, 
into  which  the  rest  of  the  body  flows.  Food  is 
picked  up  at  any  point  with  which  an  acceptable 
morsel  may  be  brought  in  contact.  The  little  gelatinous  animal  known  as  an  ANKKHA  is  one  of 
these.  Related  forms  of  this  jelly  animalcule  secrete  shells  of  varying  form  and  structure. 
Some  of  these,  known  as  FORAMS,  are  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  wonderfully  like  nautiluses  and 
other  of  the  higher  molluscan  shells  in  aspect.  Though  so  minute,  scarcely  visible  to  tin 
unassisted  eye,  they  occur  in  the  sea  in  such  numbers  as  to  form  by  their  aggregations 
the  more  considerable  ingredients  of  vast  areas  of  the  earth's  strata,  both  past  and  present. 
The  chalk  cliffs  of  Albion  and  the  white  tenacious  ooze  of  the  broad  Atlantic  are  thus  to  a 
large  extent  composed  of  the  shells  of  minute  organisms,  which  formerly  flourished  near  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  but  sank  on  their  death  to  its  abysmal  depths. 

The  simplest  of  the  forams  fabricate  shells  with  a  single  chamber,  which  are  often 
elegantly  vase-  or  flask-shaped.  More  usually,  however,  the  shell  represents  the  product  of 
repeated  buddings  or  outgrowths,  and  may  attain  considerable  dimensions.  Flattened  circular 
forms  of  this  type  much  resemble  time-worn  coins,  and  are  hence  called  \Y\i\iu  in-.  Their 
fossil-shells  enter  mainly  into  the  composition  of  rocks  which  extend  through  North  Africa 
and  Asia  to  the  Himalaya,  and  supplied  the  stone  of  which  the  I'yramids  are  built. 

Allied  to  the  Forams,  but  distinguished  by  the  radiating,  needle-like  contour  of  their 
false  feet  and  the  flinty  texture  of  their  shells,  are  an  equally  numerous  ass<jmblage  of 
organisms  known  as  R.\]>II>I.AKIA\S.  Like  the  Forams,  they  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  and 
their  discarded  shells  enter  extensively  into  the  constitution  of  strata.  A  little  globular  fresh- 
water form,  devoid  of  a  shell,  and  with  slender  bristle-like  feet  radiating  in  every  direction, 
is  known  as  the  Sux-AXIMALCULE,  and  forms  a  connecting-link  between  the  List  two  groups. 

From  Man  to  Egg-laying  Mammals,  Molluscs  to  Animalcules,  the  vast  scheme  of  the 
Animal  Creation  has  now  been  successively  portrayed.  With  such  simple  gelatinous  life->pecks 
as  the  Amoeba  and  its  allies  TllK  LlVINt;  AMM  ILSOI  i  III  W«  >KLI>  make  their  exit:  unorganised 
organisms,  groping  blindly  in  the  Jarkncss — "  Sans  teeth,  sans  e\ -e^,  sans  taste,  >ans  everything." 


INDEX 


INDEX 


BIRDS    OF   OTHER    LANDS 


Adjutant-stork,  50,  51 

African  Saddle-billed  Stork,  52 

Albatross,  44,  45;  White-capped, 
46 

Amadavats,  123 

Amazon  Parrots,  94 

Andalusian,  21 

Angolan  Vulture,  81 

Ant-thrushes,  143,  145 

Apteryx,  1,  12 

Argus-pheasant,  22 

Auk,  31 ;  Great,  31 ;  Little,  31 

Australian  Black  Swan,  73 

Australian  Laughing-kingfisher, 
103 

Australian  Lyre-bird,  144 

Australian  Magpie,  135 

Australian  Pelican,  61 

Australian  Pygmy  Goose,  71 

Australian  White-bellied  Sea- 
eagle,  77 

Avocet,  57 

Aylesbury  Duck,  67 

B 

Bailador,  144 

Bantam,  Japanese,  22;  Sebright,  22 

Barbels,  "112,  114 

Barnacle  Goose,  71 

Bartlett,  Mr.,  20 

Baya  Sparrows,  124 

Bean-goose,  71 

Bearded  Tits,  132 

Bearded  Vulture,  79 

Bee-eaters,  110,  111 

Bell-birds,  143,  145 

Bendire,  Captain,  24 

Bird  of  Paradise,  118;  King.  120; 
King  of  Saxony's,  120;  Red,  121 

Birds  of  Prey,  74 

Birds  of  the  Sun,  118 

Bishop-birds,  124 

Bittern,  55,  57;  Sun-,  41 

Black-bellied  Sand-grouse,  30 

Blackbird,  138,  139 

Black  Brent  Goose,  71 

Black-cap,  138 

Black-chested  Crested  Guinea- 
fowl,  22 

Blackcock,  15 

Black  Cockatoo,  94 

Black-footed  Penguin,  42.  43,  44 

Black-headed  Gull,  33 

Black-necked  Swan,  71,  73 

Black  Spanish,  21 

Black  Stork,  50 

Black  Swan,  73;  Australian,  73 

Black-throated   Diver,  41 


Black  Vulture,  79 

Black-winged  Stilt,  38 

Black  Woodpecker,   116 

Blue  Jay,   118 

Blue  Mountain-lories,  93 

Blue  Mountain-parrot,  97 

Blue  Penguin,  44 

Blue  Tit,  131 

Boatswain-bird,  66 

Bottle-tit,  131 

Bower-bird,  Spotted,  120;  Golden, 
121 

Brama,  Dark,  19 

Break-bones,  46 

British  Starling,  121 

Broad-bills,   135,  143,  146 

Bronze  Cuckoos,  101 

Brown  Leghorn,  18 

Brown  Linnet,  127 

Brush-tongued  Parrots,  93 

Brush-turkey,  23 

Budgerigars,  93,  94 

Buff-backed   Heron,  56 

Buller,  Sir  Walter,  12 

Bullfinch,  126,  127 

Bunting.  Corn-,  127;  Green-head- 
ed, 127;  Reed-,  128;  Snow-,  127 

Bustard,  38;  Denham's,  36;  Great, 
36,  38 ;  Indian.  37 

Bustard-quail,  25 ;  Indian,  25 

Butcher-birds,   135 

Buzzard.  Honey-,  76;  Rough- 
legged,  83. 


Canary,    127 

Cape   Barren  Goose,  70 

Cape  Penguin,  42 

Cape  Sparrow,  75 

Capercailzie,  14 

Capercallie,   14 

Caracaras,  82 

Carrier   Pigeon,   30 

Carrion-crow,   118 

Carrion-hawks,  82 

Casarita,  146 

Cassowary,  9;  Sclater's,  9 

Cattle-cleaner,  56 

Cattle-egret,  56;  Indian,  57 

Chaffinches,  125 

Chaka,  66 

Chatterer,    135,   143;   Thick-billed, 

144 

Chiff-chaff,  138 
Chimney-swallow.    142 
Chinese  Goose.  71 
Chough,  118;  Cornish.  120 
Cinereous  Vulture,  79 
Coal-tit.   131 
Cobbler's-awl  Duck,  37 

373 


Cochin,  21 ;  Red,  18 

Cockateels,  91 

Cockatoo,  Black,  94;  Leadbeater's. 
95 

Cock-of-the-rock,  143,  144,  145 

Cock-of-the-wood,  14 

Colies,  110,  111 

"Comebacks,"  24 

Comercolly  feathers,  51 

Common  Cuckoo,  96 

Common  Heron,  55 

Common  Night-heron,  55,  56 

Common  Starling,  123 

Common  Thrush,  139 

Concave-casqued  Hornbill,  109 

Condor,  74 

Coot,  26 

Cormorant,  60,  61,  62 

Corn-bunting,   127 

Corn-crake,   26 

Cornish  Chough,  120 

Cotton-teal,  71 

Courlan.  41 

Crane,  26,  39;  Crowned.  40,  41; 
Manchurian,  40;  Sarus,  40; 
Stanley,  38 ;  Wattled,  40 ;  White, 
40;  Whooping.  40 

Crested  Hornbill,  108 

Crested  Pelican,  60 

Crested  Screamer,  66,  67 

Crested  Titmouse,  131 

Crested  Penguin,  44 

Crested  Tyrant-bird,  146 

Crimson-headed  Tanager,  124 

Crowned  Crane,  40,  41 

Crowned  Pigeons,  28 

Crows,  117 

Cuckoo,  96;  Bronze,  101;  Com- 
mon. 96;  Emerald,  101;  Gold- 
en, 101;  Great  Spotted,  100; 
Ground-,  101 ;  Lark-heeled,  101 ; 
Pheasant-,  99 

Cuckoo's   Mate.   116 

Cunningham,  Mr..  11 

Curassow-hawk,  82 

Curassow,  Razor-billed.  25 

Curl-crested  Toucan,  113,  114 

Curlew,  34,  37 

Cygnets,  72 


Dabchick,  42 

Dancer,   144 

Dark  Brama.  19 

Darter,  60,  61 

Denham's  Bustard.  36 

Devil's  Bird.  49 

Diamond-bird.  135 

Dipper,    140 

Diver.  41,  42;  Black-throated,  41 

Diving-ducks,  69 


374 

Diving-petrel,  44,  49 

1'i.rkmi:.   21 

Dotterel.   37 

Dove.  Namaqua,  30;  Scaly.  30 

I  hi   Cliaillu.  24 

Duck,  66;  Aylcsbury,  67;  Para- 
dise. 69;  Penguin-,  69;  Rouen, 
69;  \Vild-,  67 

Dunlin.  35 

E 

Eagle.  75,  80;  Golden,  80;  Harpy-, 
81;  Mountain-.  80;  Sea-.  81; 
Wedge-tailed.  82;  white-tailed, 
81 

Eagle-owl,  85.  86 

Eared  Grebe.  42 

Eared  Night-jar.  88 

Edible  Swift.  90 

Egret.  56;  Cattle-.  56 

Egyptian   Kite.  78 

Egyptian   Pelican.  59 

Egyptian  Spur-winged   Plover,  38 

Egyptian  Vulture,  79,  80,  82 

Eider-duck.  68,  69 

Emden  Goose,  71 

Emerald  Cuckoo.  101 

Emeu.  9.  10.  12 ;  Spotted,  12 

Emperor  Penguin.  4.? 

English  Nuthatch.  130 

English  Pouter,  30 

Erne.  81 

Eugene's  Pigeon.  28 

European  Flamingo.  53 

European   Hoopoe.   1 10 

Evening-grosbeaks,  124 


Fairy  Martins.  141 

Falcon.  74,  75.  82;  Jer-,  83;  Pere- 
grine. 83.  84 

Father  John.  54 

Fern-owl,  87 

Finches.  117;  True,  124 

Fin- feet.  27 

Fire-crest.  132 

Fire-crested  Wren,  132 

Fishing-hawk,   78 

Flamingo,  52,  53;  European,  53 

Flappers.  68 

Flower-peckers,  134,  135 

Fly-catchers,  140;  common,  140; 
Spotted,  140 

Fowls,  Domesticated.  20 

Francolin.  17 

Fresh-water  Ducks.  67 

Frigate-bird.  60,  63,  66 

Frill-back,  Indian,  30 

Frog-mouth.  88 

Fruit-pigeon.  28:  Nicobar  Impe- 
rial. 29 

Fulmar  Petrel.  44.  49 


Gallinule.  26 ;  Mantell's,  27 
Game-birds.  13 
Game-breed,  21 
Gander.  71 
Gannet,  62,  64 
Garden-warbler.  138 
Gardener-bird.  120 
Gentle  Penguin.  44 
Giant    I'em-l.  44.  46 
Glead.  75 


INDEX 


Glossy  Ibis,  55 

( .!  ."\   Starlings,  123 

dlyiin,  Arthur,  8 

(mat-sucker,  87 

God's  Birds,  118 

Godwit,  35 

Gold-crests,  132 

Golden  Bower-bird,  121 

Golden-crested  Wren,  132 

Golden  Cuckoos,   101 

Golden   Eagle.  80 

Golden-eye,  70 

Golden  Oriole.  123 

Goldfinch,   126 

Goliath  Heron.  56 

Goose,  66,  71 ;  Australian  Pygmy. 
71:  Barnacle-,  71;  Bean-,  71; 
Black  Brent,  71 ;  Cape  Barren, 
70;  Chinese,  71;  Emden.  71; 
Grey,  71;  Grey-lag.  71;  Guinea-, 
71 ;  Half-webbed.  71 ;  Kelp-.  71 ; 
Orinoco,  71;  Pink- footed,  71; 
Spur-winged,  71 ;  Toulouse,  71 ; 
Upland,  71;  White- fronted,  71 

Gos-hawk,  81,  82 

Gosling,   71 

Goura.  28 

Crackles,  123 

Grant,  Ogilvie,  24 

Grass-finches,   123 

Grass-parrakeets,  94 

Great  Auk,  31 

Great  Bird  of  Paradise,  118 

Great  Black-backed  Gull,  34 

Great  Blue  Heron,  56 

Great  Busiard.  36 

Great-crested  Grebe,  41,  42 

Great  Grey  Shrike.  136 

Great  Spotted  Cuckoo,  100 

Great  Tit.   133 

Great  Titmouse.   131 

Greater  Spotted  Woodpecker,  115, 
116 

Grebe,  41;  Eared.  42;  Great- 
crested.  41.  42 

Greenfinches,    124.    127 

Green  Glossy  Starling.  123 

Green-headed  Bunting,  127 

Greenlets,  138 

Green   Pigeon,  28 

Green  Woodpecker.  115 

Grey  African  Parrot,  93 

Grey  Goose,  71 

Grey  Gull,  34 

Grey-hen.  15 

Grey-lag  Goose,  71 

Grey  Linnet.   127 

Grey-naped  Ground-pigeon.  30 

Grey  Plover.  35 

Grev  Wagtail,  129 

Griffon-vulture,   79,   80 

Grosbeak.  124;  Evening.  124 

Ground-cuckoos.  101 

Ground-horn  bill.  109 

Ground-parrakeet,  Long-tailed.  94 

Ground-pigeon.  Grey-naped.  30 

Ground-thrush.  145 

Grouse.  13;  Red,  13 

Guan,  25 

Guanaco.  5 

Guillemot.  31 

Guinea-fowl,  Black.  24;  Black- 
chested  crested,  22 

Guinea-go,  ise.    71 

Gull.  32;  Black-headed.  33:  Great 
black-l.ackrd.  34.  ',.,.  34; 
Il.Tring-.  33;  Skua.  35 


H 

Half-webbed  Goose.  71 

Hamburg,  Pencilled,  22;  Silver- 
spangled.  19 

Hanging-parrots,  94 

Harpy-eagle,  81 

Harriers.  86 

Hawfinch.   124 

Hawk,  Curassow-,  82;  Fishing- 
78;  Gos-,  81,  82;  Night-,  88; 
Sparrow-.  81 

Hawk-billed  Parrot.  93,  94 

Hawk-eagle,  Martial,  83 

Hedge-sparrow,  140 

Hen,  Pharaoh's,  80 

Helmet-hornbill.    107 

Heron,  49_;  Buff-backed.  56;  Com- 
mon, 55;  Common  Night-,  55 
56;  Goliath,  56;  Great  Blue.  56 

Herring-gull.  33 

Hill-mynas.   123 

Himalayan  Monal.  17 

Hoatzin.  26 

Hobby.  83 

Honey-buzzard.  76 

Honey-eaters,  128,  134 

Honey-guides,  112,  113,  115 

Hoopoe,  102,  109;  European,  lid; 
Wo,.d-.  110 

Hornbill.      102.      106;      Com 
casqued,      109;     Crested.      UI8; 
Ground-,  109;  Helmet-,  107 

House-martin,  14J 

House-sparrows.   125 

Huia,  118 

Humboldt's    Penguin.   44 

Hume.  A.  O.,  25 

Humming-birds.  87,  90 

Hyacinthine  Macaw,  93 


Ibis.  55;  Glossy.  55;  Sacred.  54 
Indian   Bustard.  37 
Indian  Bustard-quail,  25 
Indian  Cattle-ctiret.  57 
Indian  Frill-back.  M\ 
Israelites,  The.  and  Quails.  18 


Jabiru  Stork.  51.  52 
Jacamars.  112.  114 
Jacana,  38 

Jackass.   Laughing-.   U)6,  107 
lackass-penguin.  42 
Jackdaws.  117,  118 
Jacobin.  30 
Japanese   Bantam.  22 
lava  Sparrow.  123 
Jay.  Blue.  118 
Jer-falcon,  83 
"Johnny."  44 
Jungle-'fowl.  20;  Red,  20 


K 

Kagn,  41 

Kaka,  New  Zealand.  93 

Kakapo.  41.  95 

Kea.  91:  New  Zealand,  "j 

Kelp-goose.  71 

Ke-trel.  X3.  84 

King-bird.  14f> 

King  Binl  of  Paradise.  120 


INDEX 


375 


Kingfisher,  102,  104,  106;  Aus- 
tralian Laughing-,  103 ;  Laugh- 
ing-, 105;  Racket-tailed,  105; 
Wood-,  105 

King  of  Saxony's  Bird  of  Para- 
dise, 120 

King-penguin,  44 

Kite,  75;  Egyptian,  78 

Kittiwake,  34 

Kiwi,  12;  Mantell's,  12;  Owen's,  12 

Knot,  35 

Koel,  100 

L 

Lammergeier,  79 

Land-rail,  26 

Lark-heeled  Cuckoos,  101 

Larks,  128 

Laughing-jackass,  106,  107 

Laughing-kingfisher,  105;  Austra- 
lian, 103 

Leadbeater's  Cockatoo,  95 

Leghorn.  21 ;  Brown,  18 

Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker,  116 

Linnet,  126,  128;  Brown.  127; 
Grey,  127;  Red,  127 

Little  Auk,  31 

Little   House-builder.   146 

Little   Owls,  86 

Long-eared  Owl,  86 

Long-tailed  Ground-parrakeet,  94 

Long-tailed  Macaw,  93 

Long-tailed  Titmouse,  131 

Long-tailed   Whydah-bird,    123 

Long-tailed    Widow-birds,    123 

Lories.  91,  92 

Love-birds,  94 

Lyre-bird,  Australian,  144;  Prince 
Albert's,  142;  Victorian.  144 

M 

Macaw,   91,   93,   96;    Hyacinthine, 

93 ;  Long-tailed,  93 
Magpie,   118,   119;  Australian,   135 
Mallard,  67 
Manakins,   144 
Manchurian  Crane.  40 
Marabou  feathers.  51 
Marsh  Tit,  131,   132 
Martial  Hawk-eagle.  83 
Martin,    141;    Fairy,    141;    Sand-, 

141 

Meadow-pipit.  130 
Megapode.  67 ;  Nicobar,  24 
Merganser,  67,  70 
Merlin.  83 
Minorca,  21 
Monal.  Himalayan,  17 
Moor-hen,  26 
More-pork.  88 
Motmot,    110,    111;    Racket-tailed, 

111.  112 

Mound-builder,  67 
Mountain-eagle,  80 
Mountain-lories,  Blue,  93 
Mountain-nestor,  91 
Mountain-parrot,  Blue,  97 
Mouse-birds,    112 
Munias.  123 
Mute  Swan,  72 

N 

Namaqua  Dove,  30 

Nandu.  2 

Nelly,  46 

Nestors.  91 ;  Mountain-,  91 


New  Guinea  Crowned  Pigeon,  29 
New  World  Vultures,  74 
New  Zealand  Kaka,  93 
New  Zealand  Kea,  92 
Nicobar  Imperial  Fruit-pigeon,  29 
Nicobar  Megapode,  25 
Nicobar  Pigeon,  28 
Night-hawk,  88 
Night-heron,  Common.  55 
Night-jar,    87;    Eared,    88;    Pen- 
nant-winged. 87,  88 
Nightingale,  139 
Noddy  Tern,  32 
Noddy,  White,  32 
Nuthatch,  130.  131;  English,  130 
Nutmeg-pigeon,  White,  28 


Oil-bird,  88 

Old  World  Vultures,  79 

Orinoco  Goose,  71 

Oriole,  117,  123;  Golden,  123 

Ortolan,   127 

Osprey,  78 

Osprey  feathers,  56 

Ostrich,  5,  7;  African,  1;  Cock,  8; 

South  American.  2 
Oven-birds.  145 
Owl,  74,  85 ;  Eagle-,  85.  86 ;  Fern-. 

87;   Little,  86;   Long-eared,  86; 

Pygmy,    86;     Short-eared,     86; 

Snowy,     .86;      Spectacled.     84; 

Tawny,  85,  86;  Wood-,  86 
Owl-parrot,  93,  95 
Ox-eye.  133 
Ox-pecker,  123 
Oyster-catcher,  35 


Painted  Megapode,  Wallace's,  24 

Painted  Pigeon.  28 

Painted  Snipe,  36 

Pallas's  Sand-grouse,  30 

Paradise-birds.  118 

Paradise  Duck,  69 

Parrakeet,  Swamp-,  94 

Parrot,  91;   Amazon,   94;    Brush- 

tongued,  93;  Grey  African,  93; 

Hanging-,   94;    Hawk-billed.   93, 

94;  Owl-,  93,  95;  Pygmy,  93 
Parson-bird,    134 
Partridge,   14;    French,   15;   Grey, 

17;   Red-legged,   15;   Tree,   17 
Peacock,  21,  22 
Peacock-pheasant,  16 
Pelican,    49,    61  ;    Australian.    61 ; 

Crested,  60;  Egyptian,  59 
Pencilled   Hamburg,  22 
r'enduline   Titmouse.   131 
Penguin,  41 ;  Black- footed,  42   43 

44;  Blue,  44;  Cape,  42;  Crested. 

44;    Emperor.    44;    Gentle.    44; 

HumboldVs,     44;     King-.     44; 

Jackass-.  42;  Rockhopper,  47 
Penguin-duck.  69 
Pennant-winged   Night-jar.  87,  80 
Perching-birds,    117 
Peregrine   Falcon,  83,  84 
Petrel.    Diving-,   44,   49;    Fulmar. 

44.  49;  Giant.  44.  46;  Storm-,  49 
Phalarope.  36 
Pharaoh's  Hen,  80 
Pheasant.  Amherst's.  16;  English. 

16;    Golden,    15;    Impeyan.    20; 

Reeves's.  16.  18;  Silver,"  16 
Pheasant-cuckoo,  99 


Pigeon,  28;  Carrier-,  30;  Crowned, 
28;  Eugene's,  28;  New  Guinea 
Crowned,  29;  •  Nicobar,  28; 
Painted,  28;  Wonga-Wonga,  29 

Pink-footed   Goose,   71 

Pipits,  128,  130;  Meadow-,  130; 
Rock-.  130;  Tree-,  130 

Pittas,  145 

Plain-wanderers,  25 

Plantain-eaters,  91,  96,  101 

Plant-cutters,   145 

Plover,  35;  Grey.  35;  Egyptian 
Spur-winged.  38 

Plymouth   Rock.  21 

Pochard,  67,  70 

Poe,  134 

Polish,  22 

Pondicherry  Vulture,  79,  80,  81 

Pouter,   English,  30 

Prince  Albert's  Lyre-bird    142 

Ptarmigan,   13,   14 

Puff-birds,   112,   114 

Puffin,  31 

Pygmy   Falcons,   84 

Pygmy  Goose,  Australian,  71 

Pygmy   Parrots,  93 

Q 

Quail,  15,  17;  American,  18 
Queensland  Rifle-bird,  121 
Quezal,  112 


Racket-tailed  Kingfishers,  105 

Racket-tailed   Motmot,   111,    112 

Rail,  13,  26 

Raven,  117 

Razor-bill,  31 

Red-backed  Shrike,  135,  136 

Red-beaked  Waxbills,  123 

Red  Bird  of  Paradise,  121 

Red-breast,   139 

Red  Cochin,   18 

Red  Grouse,   13 

Red-legged  Falconet,  84 

Red  Linnet.  127 

Red-rumped  Swallows,  141 

Red-starts,   139 

Red  Wagtail,   129 

Reed-bunting,   128 

Reed-warbler.   136 

Reedlings.  131,  132 

Reeves's  Pheasant,  18 

Rhea.  1,  3;  White,  4 

Rifle-bird,   Queensland.   121 

Robin  Red-breast,  139 

Rock-hopper  Penguin,  44,  47 

Rock-pipit.    130 

Rollers,   102 

Rood-runner,    100 

Rook,   118 

Roseate  Tern,  32 

Rose-colored  Starling,  122 

Rouen  Duck,  69 

Rough-legged  Buzzard,  86 

Ruff,  36 

Rufous  Tinamou,  1 

Riippell's  Vulture,  80 

Ryper,  14 


Sacred  Ibis,  54 
Sacred   Vulture,  80 
Saddle-billed  Stork.  African,  52 
Saint  Kilda  Wren.  140 
Salvin's  Swift,  89 


376 


INDEX 


Salt-water  Ducks.  67 

Sandcrling.  35 

Sand-grouse,  28;  Black-bellied,  30; 

Pallas' s.  30 
Sand-martin.  141.  143 
Sarus  Crane,  40 
Satin-bird.  120 
Scaly  Dove,  30 
Scarlet  Tanager,  124 
Scaup,  70 
r.  70 
Screamer,    66;    Crested,    66,    67; 

Horned.  66 
Scrub-birds.  14J 
Sea-eagle.  81 ;   Australian   White- 

bellied.  77 
Sea-swallows,  32 
Sebright  Bantam.  22 
Secretary-bird.  41.  74.  75,  76 
Sedge-warbler,  138 
Serieme.  41 
Settler's  Clock.   106 
Sheldrake.  68.  70 
Shoe-billed  Stork.  52 
Short-eared  Owl.  86 
Short-faced  Tumbler.  30 
Shrikes,   135 

Silver-spangled  Hamburg,  19 
Silver  Wyandotte,  20 
Skimmer,  33 
Skua  Gull.  35 
Skylark,  128,  129,  130 
Smew,  70 
Snake-bird,  116 
Snake-neck,  61 

Snipe,  Common.  37;  Painted,  36 
Snow-bunting.  127 
Snowflake.   127 
Snowy  Owl.  86 
Sociable  Weaver-bird.  124 
Song-thrush.   137 
Sparrow,    127;   Baya,   124;   Cape, 

Sparrow-hawk,  81 

Spectacled  Owl,  84 

Spiny-tailed   Ducks,  67 

Spoonbill.  54 

Spotted  Bower-bird.  120 

Spotted  Fly-catcher.  140 

Spur-winged  Goose,  71 

Stanley  Crane,  38 

Starling.  I'.ritish,  121 ;  Common, 
123;  Glossy,  123;  Green  Glossy, 
123;  Rose-colored.  122 

Stilt.  Black-winged,  38 

Stinker,  46 

Stinking-ph-isant.  26 

Stone-chats.  139.  140 

Stone-curlew.  34 

Stork.  49;  Adjutant-.  50.  51;  Afri- 
can Saddle-billed.  52:  Black.  50; 
Jabiru.  50.  51.  52:  Shoe-billed, 
52;  Whale-headed,  50,  52; 
White,  48,  49 


Storm-petrel.  49 

Sun-birds.   134 

Sun-bittern.  41 

Swallow.  135.  140.  141,  142;  Chim- 
ney, 142;  Common.  142;  Red- 
rumped,  141 

Swamp-parrakeet,  94 

Swan.  66;  Black,  73;  Black- 
necked,  71,  73;  Coscoroba,  72; 
Mute,  72;  Trumpeter-,  72; 
Whooper-,  72 

Swift.  87,  88;  Edible,  90;  Salviifs, 
89 


Tanager.     Crimson -headed,     124; 

Scarlet.  124;  White-capped.   124 
Tawny  Owl,  85,  86 
Teal,  Cotton-,  71 
Tern,    32;    Noddy,    32;    Roseate, 

32;   White.  31 
Thick-billed  Chatterer,   144 
Thick-knee.  34 
Thrush.   135,   138;   Common,   139; 

Ground-,  145 
Tiercel.  83 

Tinamou,  Great,  2;  Rufous.  1 
Titmouse,  128.  131;  Bearded,  132; 

Bottle-,    131;    Coal-.    131,    134; 

Great,     133;    Long-tailed,     131; 

Marsh-,  131 
Toddy-birds,  124 
Todies.  110.  Ill 
Toucan.  112;  Curl-crested,  113,  114 

114 

Toulouse  Goose,  71 
Touracos,  101 
Tree-creepers,  130 
Tree-pipit.  130 
Trogons.  110,  112,  113 
Tropic-bird,  60,  64,  66 
True  Titmouse,  131 
Trumpeter,  41 
Trumpeter-swan.  72 
Tube-nosed  Birds,  41,  44 
Tumbler,  Short- faced.  30 
Turkey,  24;  Honduras,  24;  Mexi- 
can. 24 

Turnstone,  37 
Tyrant-bird,  Crested,  146 
Tyrant   Fly-catchers,    146 


Umbrella-bird.  143 
Upland-goose,   71 


Victorian    Lyre-bird.    144 
Vulture-like  Guinea-fowl,  23 
Vulture.  78;  Angolan.  81;  Beard- 
ed.   79;    Black.    79;    Cinern  u<. 
79;   Egyptian.  79,  80,  82;   Grif- 


fon-, 79,  80;  New  World.  74; 
Old  World.  79;  Pondicherry.  79, 
80,  81;  Ruppell's,  80;  Sacred,  80 

W 

Wading-birds,  35 

Wagtail,  129;  Grey,  129;  Red,  129; 
Yellow,  129 

Wallace's   Painted  Megapode,  24 

Wall-creeper,  130 

Water-hen,  27 

Water-ouzel,    140 

U  'aa-r-pheasant,  38 

Water-rail,  26 

Wattled  Crane,  40 

Waxbilh    Red-beaked,  123 

Wax-wings,  136 

Weaver-birds,  123 

Weavers,   Sociable,   124 

\\  edge-tailed  Eagle,  82 

Wi-ka-rail,  26 

Whale-headed  Stork,  50,  52 

Wheat-ears,  139 

Whin-chats,  139 

White-bellied  Sea-eagle,  Austra- 
lian. 77 

White-capped  Albatross.  4(> 

White-capped  Tanager,  124 

White  Crane,  40 

White-eyes,  134 

White- fronted  Goose,  71 

White  Noddy,  32 

White   Nutmeg-pigeon.  28 

White  Kheas,  4 

White  Stork,  48,  49 

White-tailed   Eagle,  81 

White-throat.   138 

Whooper-swan,  72 

Whooping-crane.  40 

Widow-bird.  Long-tailed,   123 

Wild-duck.  (>7 

Willow-warbler.  138 

Wind-hover.  84 

Witch.  49 

Wonga-Wonga  Pigeon   29 

Woodcock,  35,  37 

\\  nod-hewers.  145 

Wood-hoopoes.   110 

Wood-kingfishers.   105 

\\..od-i>wl.  86 

Woodpecker,  112.  115:  lilaok.  116; 
Greater  Spotted.  115.  lid;  !.,•*- 
ser  Spotted.  116 

Wood- warbler.  138 

Wri-n.  14(1;  Common,  140;  St. 
Kilda.  14u 

Wrynecks.    115,    116 

Wyandotte,  Silver,  20 


Yellowhammer.   127 
Yellow  Wagtail.  129 


INDEX 


377 


REPTILES    AND    AMPHIBIANS 


Adder,    190;   African   Puff-,    197, 

198;  Death-,  196,  198 
/Esculapian  Snake,  191 
Agama  Family,  171 
Alligator,  147,  152;  Chinese,   153; 

Mississippi,  153;  Typical,  153 
Alligator-terrapins,  158 
Amphibians,     200;     Tailed,     201; 

Tailless,  201 
Amphisbsenas,   178 
Anaconda,   193 
Askers,  207 
Asp,  Egyptian,  1% 
Australian  Black  Snake,  196 
Australian  Water-lizard,  171 
Axoloth,  210 


B 


Banded  Iguana,  172,  177 

Bearded  Lizard,  170 

Bicoloured  Tree-frog,  205 

Blind  Proteus,  210 

Blind-snakes,    190 

Blind-worm,  165 

Blue-tongued  Lizard,    181,   182 

Blue  Tree-frog,  205 

Boa,  190;  Common,  192;  -con- 
strictor, 189,  190,  192;  True,  192; 
Water-,  193 

Box-tortoises,  156 

British  Ringed  Snake,  194 

Broad-snouted  Crocodile,   148 

Bull-frog.  200,  202 

Bush-master,  199,  200 


Caiman,  147,  153 ;  Great,  153 

Carpet-snake,    191 

Cerastes,  198 

Chamxleons,  183,  184,  185 

Chelonians,  Order  of,  153 

Cobra-de-Capello,  196 

Common  Boa,  192 

Common  Snakes,  Family  of,  194 

Copper-head,  199 

C'raits,  Indian,  196 

Crested  Newt,  207 

Crocodile,  147,  151 ;  American, 
152;  Broad-snouted,  148;  Nile, 
147.  152;  Orinoco,  152;  Queens- 
land, 150;  True,  150 

Cunningham's  Spine-tail,  182 

Cyclodus,  Great,  181 


Death-adders,   196.   198 
Diamond-back  Rattle-snake,  197 
Diamond-backed  Terrapin,  158 
Diamond-lizard,   176 


E 

Earth-snakes,  193 
Edible  Frog,  201,  202 
Effets,  207 
Efts,  207    • 


Egg-eating  Snake,  195 
Egyptian  Asp,  1% 
Elephant-tortoises,  154,  156,  160 
European  Green  Tree-frog,  204 


Fer-de-lance.  199,  200 

Fiji  Banded  Iguana,  172,  177 

Flying-dragons,   167 

Flying- frog,  203 

Frilled  Lizard,  168 

Frog,  200 ;  Blue  or  Bicoloured, 
Tree-,  205 ;  Common  British, 
202;  Edible,  201.  202;  European 
Green  Tree-,  204;  Flying-,  203; 
Guppy's,  202;  Horned,  204; 
Queensland  Green,  206 ;  Short- 
headed,  204;  Tiger-like,  201; 
Tree-,  205 

Furrowed  Salamander,  .210 


Galapagos  Sea-lizard,  172 
Garial,  147;  Long-snouted,  152 
Garter-snake,   192 
Gavial,  147 ;  Long-snouted,  152 
Gecko,    Burmese,    166;    Madeiran, 

167 

Gecko  Family,  166 
Giant   Cobra,   196 
Giant  Salamander,  210 
Giant  Tortoises,  154,  157 
Girdle-tailed  Lizards,   173,   177 
Glass-snake,  165 
Golden   Tree-frog,   205 
Gooana,  174 
Great  Cyclodus,  181 
Greaved  Lizards,  176 
Green  Turtle,  162 
Guppy's  Frog,  202 

H 

Haje,  196 

Hamadryad,  196 

Hawksbill,  162 

Heloderm,     173;     Arizona,     178; 

Mexican,  173 
Hinged  Tortoises,  156 
Hooded   Snake.   196 
Horned  Frogs,  204 
Horned  Toad,  171,   174,  175,  204; 

Ornamented,  203 
Horned  Viper,  198 


Iguana,  Tuberculated,  172,  176 
Iguana,  171;  Banded,  172,  177 
Indian  Crafts,   196 
Indian  Python,  191 
Indian  Rat-snake,  195 
Indian   Whip-snakes,   196 


Jew  Lizard.  170,  172 

L 

Lace-lizard,   174 
Land-tortoises,  True,  154 
Leathery  Turtle,  162 


Leopard-snake,    193 
Leseur's  Water-lizard,  170 
Lizard,       165;      Agamoid,       168; 
Bearded,  170,  172;  Blue-tongued, 
181,  182;  Diamond-,  176;  Frilled, 
168,  169;  Girdle-tailed,  173,  177; 
Greaved,   176;   Green,   178,  179; 
Jew,  170;  Lace-,  174;  Ocellated, 

179,  180;    Pearly,    179;    Sand-, 
178;   Spine-tailed,  182;  Spinous, 
173 ;    Spiny,    171 ;    Stump-tailed, 

180,  181;  True,  178;  Viviparous, 
176,    178;    Wall-,    176;    Water-, 
170 

Loggerhead,    162 

Long-necked  Water-tortoises,  160 
Long-snouted  Crocodile,  152 
Long-snouted  Garial,  152 
Long-snouted  Gavial,  152 
Luth,  162 

M 

Marbled  Newt,  208 
Margined  Tortoise,  156 
Marine  Turtles,  161 
Marsupial  Tree-frog,  206 
Matamata  Tortoise,   160 
Matlamitlo,  202 
Medicinal   Skink,  180 
Mexican  Heloderm,  173 
Moccasin-snake,  195,  199 
Monitor,    174;    Nile,    174;    White, 

178 

Mountain-devil,  170,  173 
Mud-terrapins,  American,  158 

N 

Natal  Rock-snake,  192 

Natterjack,  207 

Newt,  207 ;  Common,  or  Smooth, 

207,  208;  Crested,  207;  Marbled, 

208 
Nile  Monitor,  174 


Ocellated  Lizard.  179,  180 

Olm,  210 

Orinoco  Crocodile,  152 


Painted  Terrapin,  158 
Pearly  Lizard,  179,  180 
Pine-snake,  194 
Pipa.  207 
Pit-vipers,  199 
Pond-tortoises,  156 
Pouched  Tree-frog,  206 
Puff-adder,  African,  197,  198 
Pygmy  Snakes.  195 
Python,    190;    Irdian,   191;    Retic- 
"ulated,  191 


Queensland  Green  Frog,  206 


Rat-tailed  Pit-viper,  200 
Rattle-snakes,  199:  Diamond-back, 

197.  199 
Reptile  class,  147 


378 


I  N  D  E  X 


Reticulated  Pjthun.  191 
Kinged  Snakes.  190.  194 
Rock-snakes.  191  ;  Natal.  192 


Salamander.  2t>7  ;  Furrowed.  -Ill; 
Giant.  210;  Sinn.  210;  Spotted. 
209,  210;  True.  208 

Sand-lizard.  178 

ScbdtopMik  165 

Sea-lizard.  Galapagos.  172 

Si.i  ^nakes,  195 

Shield-tails,  193 

Slmrt-headed  Frogs,  204 

Side-necked  Tortoises,  160 

Silatica.  17.5 

Siren  Salamander.  210 

Skink,  Common,  180.  181 

Skink   Family,  180 

Skink.   Medicinal.   180 

Slow-worm,  165 

Smooth  Newt,  207,  208 

Smooth  Snake,  190,  195 

Snake  -  necked  Water  -  tortoises, 
160 

Snake.  187;  ^sculapia.i.  191; 
Australian  Black.  1%;  Blind. 
190;  Carpet,  191;  Common 
Kinged.  190;  Copper-head.  199; 
Dark  Green,  187,  188;  Earth, 
193;  Egg-eating.  195;  Garter. 
192;  Hooded.  196;  Indian  Rat-. 
195;  Indian  Whip-.  1%;  Leo- 
pard, 193;  Moccasin.  195; 
Pygmy,  195;  Rattle-,  197,  199; 


Rock-.  191;  Sea-,  195;  Smooth. 

191);    Spectacled.    1%:    Spitting-. 

196;       Tcs-elated.       19.5.       195; 

Tiger-.    198;    Tree-.    195;    Vip- 

erine.   195 :   Water-.   194 
Snakes.   Family  of  Common.  194 
Snapper,    158;    Temminck's,     159, 

](._' 

Snapping-turtles,  158.  161 
Spectacled  Snake.  196 
Spine-tail.  Cunningham's,  182 
Spine-tailed  Lizard,  182 
Spiny  Lizard,  171 
Spitting-snake.  196 
Spotted  Salamander,  209,  210 
Stump-tailed  Lizard,  180,  181 


Tasmanian  Black  Snake,  198 
Teguexin,  176 

Temminck's  Snapper,  159,  162 
Terrapin,     153;     Alligator,     158; 

American    Mud-,     158;    Cuban. 

164;      Diamond  -  backed,      158; 

Painted,  158;  True,  15S. 
Tesselated  Snake,  193,  195 
Tiger-snake.  198 
Toad,  200,  206;  Horned.  171.  174. 

175,   204;   Ornamented   Horned, 

203 ;  Water-,  207 
Tortoise,  153;  Asiatic,  154;  Box-. 

156;    Elephant-,    154,    155.    156, 

157,  160;  European,  154;  Giant-, 

154,  158;  Grecian,  156;  Hinged, 


15d;   Margined,   156;  Matamata. 

KiO;    Pond-.    156;    Side-mvked. 

160;  True  Land-.  154 
Tree-frog,     205;      Gulden. 

Marsupial     or     P<  niched. 

Queensland.  205 
I  Fee-Heard,  Australian,  170 
Tree-snakes.  195 
Tuatera.  183.  186 
Tulierculated  Iguana,  176 
Turtle.     153,     161;     Green. 

Leathery.      162;      Marine. 

Snapping-,    158 


Viper,  Common,  198;  EnglUK 
196.  198;  llnrned.  1<»8:  Rat- 
tailed  Pit-.  200;  Water-,  200 

W 

Wall-lizard.  176 

Water-boa.  193 

Water-lizard.      Australian.      171; 

Leseur's.  170 
Water-snakes,  194 
Water-toad.  207 
Water-tortoise.  Long-necked.  160; 

Snake-necked.  160 
Water-viper,  200 
Whip-snakes,  Indian.  196 


York  Devil.  170,  173 


FISHES 


Allis  Shad.  261 

Amphiprion.  235 

Anchovy.  260.  261 

Angel-fish.  270 

Angler-fishes.  222.  228 

Anthias.  215 

Arapaima.  254.  256:  Barbelled,  262 

Archer-fish,  216 

Armed  Bull-head.  230 

Australian  Lung-fish,  211 

B 

Ballan  Wrasse,  236 

Barbels,  252 

Barracuda.  224.  232 

Barramundi.  211 

Bar-tailed  Flat-head.  230 

Basking-shark.  268 

Bass.  215;  Large-mouthed  Black, 

214;  Sea-.  213;  Stone-,  215 
Bastard  Dory.  215 
Beaked  Salmon.  254,  256 
Bellows-fish.  234 
Bichir,  264.  265.  266 
Hlcnnies,  230.  232 
Mine  Shark.  268 
Unar-fi-h.  215 
Bombay  Duck.  256 

Bony  Pike,  264 


Bottle-nosed  Chimaera.  212 

Bouregreg.  261 

Bow-fin.  264 

Box-fish.  Spotted.  241 

Bream.  252;  Sea-.  215.  217 

Brill.  247 

Brook-trout.  259 

Brown  Snapper.  217 

Hull-head.  22.  229;  Armed,  230 

Hull-trout.  258 

Bummaloe,  256 

Burbot,  243.  244 

Burnett  River  Salmon.  211 

Butter-fish,  214.  232 

Butterfly-gurnard.  229 


Carp,  253 

Carp  Family.  252 

Carp.   King-.  253;   Leather-.  253; 

Mirror-.  253 
Carpet- shark.  267 
Cat-fishes,  248.  250.  251.  252 
Cave- fishes  .'45 
Char.  259 
Chiasmodus.  243 
Chimxra.  211;   l'...ttle-nnsed.  212 
Chromids.  237 
<  oal  (Kb.  243 

Paddle.  230 
243 
C..d  Family.  243 


Coffer-fishes.  240.  242 
Comber.  215 

Comb-gillcd   Fishes.  238.  240 
Conger-eels.  248.  249.  250 
Coral-fish.  235:  Gold-finned.  23f, 
Crocodile-fishes,  229 


Dab.  247 

Dawson   Salmon.  211.  25o.   262 

Deep-sea  Eels.  248.  250 

Deiitex.  215 

lUvil-fish.   270 

Dog-fish.  264;   British.  2f>8:  < 

lated.  269 
I  lory.    222;    Bastard.    215:     Mm. 

J_'4.  225:  Lonu-finned.  225' 
Drum-fish.  220 
Dusky   Perch.  215 


E 

Eagle- ray.  270 
E*  1  pout,  243 

l-'.i-I.     -'48:     Common     FreOi-water. 

-'48;     Conger-,     _'48.     _M'». 

Deep-M-a.  .MS.  250;  Kid-trie.  248. 

252;     Painted.     248.     J50.     251; 

Sand-.  256;   Serpent-,  248.  250; 

Sharp-nosed.   -'4'' 
Flr.tru-  !•:,-!.  248.  252 
Emperor-fish,  216 


INDEX 


379 


Fan-finned  Fishes,  212 

Father-lasher,  229 

Fifteen-spined  Stickleback,  234 

File-fishes,  239,  240 

Fringe-finned  Fishes,  212 

Flat  fishes,  246 

Flat-head,    229;    Bar-tailed,    230; 

Rock,  230 
Flounder,  247 
Flute-mouths,  232,  234 
Flying-fishes,  230,  234,  235 
Flying-gurnards,  230 
Flying-herrings,  234 
Fox-shark.  268 
Fresh-water  Eels,  248 
Frog-fishes,  222,  227 
Frost-fish,  222 


Gaper,  215 

Garpike,  230,  234,  264 

Gilt-head,  218 

Globe-fish,  238,  242 ;  Black-spotted, 

239 
Goby,    230,    231;     Pellucid,    231; 

Spotted,  231 
Golden  Orf,  253 
Golden  Tench,  253 
Gold-fish,  253 
Grayling,  259 
Grey  Mullets,  230,  232 
Grilse,  258 
Grindle,  264 
Groper,  218,  219 
Gunnel,  232 
Gurnard.  222,  229;  Butterfly-,  229; 

Flying-,  230;  Red,  229 

H 

Haddock,  243 

Hair-tails,  222 

Hake,  243 

Half-beaks.  234 

Halibut,  246,  247 

Hammerhead-shark,  268 

Hen  Paddle,  230 

Herring,  260;  Flying-,  234;  Ox- 
eyed,  261 

Horned  Ox-ray,  270.  271 

Horse-mackerel,  222,  223,  224; 
Fringed,  223 


Indian  Sting-ray.  269 
Indian  Weaver-fish,  220 


Jack,  256 
John  Dory,  224 

K 

King-carp,  253 
King-crabs,  276 
King-snapper,  218 


Lace-finned  Leather-jacket,  241 
Large-mouthed  Black  Bass,  214 
Launces,  245 
Lawyer-fish,  264 
Leather-carp,  253 
Ling,  243 
Long-fin,  218 


Long-finned   Dory,  225 
Lump-suckers,  230,  231 
Lung-fish,     211;     African,     212; 
Queensland,  211 

M 

Mackerels,  222,  226 

Mailed  Tube-mouths,  238 

Meagres,  215,  220 

Miller's-thumb,  229 

Minnow,  252 

Mirror-carp,  253 

Monk-fish,  270 

Mud-fish,  212,  264;  South  Am- 
erican, 212 

Mullet,  Grey,  232 ;  Northern,  233 ; 
Red,  216,  233;  Striped  Red,  216 

Musket-lunge,  254 

Muskinonge,  254 


Nurse,  269 


N 


Ox-eyed   Herring,  261 
Ox-ray,   Horned,  270 


Painted   Eels,   248,  250 

Painted  Skate.  271 

Parrot-fish,     236 ;     Black-spotted, 

237;   Satin,  236 
Pellucid   Goby,  231 
Perch,  Common,  214;  Dusky,  215; 

Pike,  215;  Sea-.  215 
Perch  Family.  214 
Phosphorescent  Sardine,  256 
Pickerel.  255.  256 
Pike-perch,  215 
Pikes,  254 
Pilchard,  260,  261,  263;  Australian, 

263 

Pilot-fish,  224 
Pipe-fish,  234,  238 
Plaice,  247 
Pogge,  230 
Pole-wing,  231 
Pollack,  243,   244 
Pollack-whiting.  244 
Pope,  215 

Porbeagle-shark.  268 
Porcupine-fish,   242 
Port  Jackson  Shark,  269 
Powan,  259 


Sueensland  Smelt,  256,  257 
uinnat,  258 

R 

Ragged  Sea-scorpion,  220 

Rainbow-trout.  259 

Ray,  266,  270;  Eagle-.  270 

Red  Mullets,  215 

Red  Sea-bream,  217 

Red   Wrasse,  236 

Reed-fish,   264,   266 

River-eels,  248 

Roach,  252 

Rock   Flat-head,   230 

Rocklings.  243 

Rough   Hound,  269 

Rudd,  252 

Ruffe,  215 


S 

Salmon,  Atlantic,  257;  Beaked, 
254,  256;  Dawson  River,  211, 
256,  262;  Pacific,  258 

Salmon  Family,  257 

Salmon-trout,  258,  259 

Sand-eels,  245 

Sand-smelts,   232 

Sardine,  261 ;  Phosphorescent,  256 

Sawyer,  264 

Scabbard-fish,  222 

Scads.  224 

Scopelids,  254,  256 

Scopelus,  243 

Scorpion  Fishes.  215,  218 

Sea-bats,  222,  225 

Sea-bream,  Red,  217 

Sea-cat,  212,  232 

Sea-hedgehog,  242 

Sea-horses,  238,  240,  242;  Fucus- 
like,  240 

Sea-scorpion,  Ragged,  220 

Sea-trout,  258 

Sergeant  Baker,  255.  257 

Serpent-eels,  248,  250 

Shad,  260 ;  Allis,  261 ;  Twaite,  261 

Shark.  266;  Basking-,  268,  269, 
Blue,  268;  Carpet-.  267;  Fox-, 
268;  Hammerhead-.  268;  Por- 
beagle-, 268;  Port  Jackson,  269; 
Spotted,  267 

Sharp-nosed  Eel,  249 

Sheath-fishes,  252 

Shovel-nosed  Skate,  271 

Silver  Dog,  269 

Skate,  Painted,  271 ;  Shovel-nosed, 
271 

Smelt,  259,  260;  Queensland,  256, 
257 

Smolt,  258 

Smooth  Hounds,  268 

Snapper,  218;  Brown,  217;  King-, 
218 

Snoek,  222 

Sole,  247;  Spotted,  245 

Sparling,  259 

Spotted  Box-fish.  241 

Spotted  Goby,  231 

Spotted  Shark,  267 

Spotted  Trunk-fish,  241 

Spotted  Wrasse,  236 

Sprat.  260 

Spur-dog,  269 

Star-gazer,  227 

Steelhead,  258 

Sterlet,  265,  266 

Stickleback.  Fifteen-spined,  234 

Sticklebacks,  230,  232 

Sting-ray,  271;  Indian.  269;  Whip- 
tailed.  270 

Stone-bass,  215 

Stone-fish.  219,  221 

Striped  Wrasse,  236 

Sturgeon,  264,  265 ;  Giant.  265 

Sucker-fish  Family,  230 

Sucking-fishes,  222,  226,  227 

Sun-fishes,  242 

Sur-mullet,   217 

Sword-fishes,  215,  220,  222 


Tarpon.  260 

Tassel-fish.  215.  220,  221 
Telescope-fish.  253 
Tench.  252 ;  Golden,  253 
Teuthis,  219 


INDEX 


Thick-rayed  Fishes.  218 

Thresher.  268 

Toad- fish.  2-42 

Tortoise-fishes.  232.  234 

Trigger-fish,  239.  240 

Trout.    Brook-.   259;    Bull-,   258; 

Rainbow-.   259;    Salmon-.   258; 

Sea-.  258;   White,  .'58 
Trumpeters,  218 
Trumpet-fish.  234 
Trunk-fish,  Spotted,  241 
Tunny,  226 
Turbot,  247 
Twaite  Shad,  261 


U 


Urn  Erbeya,  261 


Yendace,  259 


W 


Walking-fish,  231 

Weaver-fish.  222,  226;  Indian,  220; 

Larger,  227 
Wels,  252 


White  Perch,  213 
White  Trout,  258 
Whitebait,  263 
Whiting,  243 
Wolf-fish,  232 
Wollibong,  267 

Wrasse.    236;    Ballan,    236;    Red, 
236;  Spotted,  236;  Striped,  236 
Wrasse-like  Fishes,  235 
Wreck-fish,  215 


Zebra-fish,  215 


JOINTED   ANIMALS 


Acorn-barnacle,  273 

Alder-flies,  303 

American  Blight,  331 

Angel-winged   Butterflies,  314 

Ant-lion,  300,  302 

Ant.    304.     307;     Solitary,     308; 

White.  298 

Aphis,  331 ;  Vine-,  331 
Atlas  Moth,  320 

B 

Barnacle.  272;  Acorn-.  273; 
Goose-,  273 

Bath  White  Butterfly,  318 

Bat-parasites,  337 

Bed-bug.  328 

Bee,  304,  307;  Carpenter-,  308, 
310;  Fulvous,  310;  Hive-,  308, 
309;  Queen-,  308;  Solitary,  308, 
310 

Bee-fly,  338 

Beetle,  283;  Blister-,  287;  British 
Musk-.  288;  Cardinal.  290;  Cel- 
lar-. 290;  Colorado,  289;  Dia- 
mond-, 288;  Dor-,  286;  Drury's 
Goliath.  285;  Harlequin.  288; 
Hercules,  285;  Jumping-,  288; 
Oil,  287;  Purple  Ground-.  283; 
Reed-,  289;  Rhipiphorus,  290; 
Rose-.  286;  Stalk-eyed.  290;  Ti- 
ger-, 283;  Tortoise-,  289;  Wasp-, 
289 

Bell-moths,  322 

Bird-flies.  337 

Bird-lice.  331 

Bird-winged  Butterflies,  317 

Biting-lice,  331 

Black-flies,  334 

Blister-beetle.  287 

Blood-sucking  Rain-fly,  335 

Blow-fly,  335.  337 

Bloxworth   Blue  Butterfly,  315 

Blue-bottle  My.  335.  337 

Blue  Butterfly.  314;  South  Amer- 
ican. 316 

Blue  Crab.  275 

Blue  Morpho  Butterfly,  314 

Bombadier,  284 

Book-scorpions.  277 

Brine-shrimp,  273 

Brush-footed  Butterflies,  314 

Buffalo-gnat,  333 


Bug,  327;  Bed-,  328;  Lace-wing, 
327;  Masked,  328;  Pentagonal 
Shield-,  327;  Stink-,  327;  True, 
327;  Water-,  328 

Bumble-bees,  308 

Burying-beetles,  284;  Flat,  284 

Burrowing-wasps,  307 

Butterfly.  311;  Angel-wingod.  314; 
Australian,  317;  Bath  White, 
318;  Bird-winged,  317;  Black- 
veined  White,  318;  Blue.  314, 
315;  Blue  Morpho,  314;  Brush- 
footed,  314;  Cabbage-,  317; 
Chrysippus,  311;  Croesus,  317; 
Dusky  Copper,  316;  Green- 
veined  White.  318;  Large  Blue, 
315;  Large  Copper,  316;  Large 
Grizzled  Skipper,  319;  Leaf-, 
311;  Long-tailed  Blue,  315; 
Long-winged,  312;  Mazarine 
Blue,  315 


Cabbage-butterflies,  White,  317 

Caddis-flies,  303 

Camel-flies,  301 

Candle-fly,  330;  Indian.  330 

Cardinal    Beetle,  290 

Carpenter-bee,  308,  310 

Carpet-moths,  322 

Caterpillars.  False,  305;  True,  305 

Cecropia  Moth.  320.  321 

Cellar-beetle,  290 

Centipedes,  280,  281 ;  Electric,  281 ; 
Giant,  281,  282 

Cheese-mite,  280 

Chrysippus  Butterfly.  .111 

Cicadas,  330,  332 

Clothes-moths.  323 

Coch-y-bonddhu,  286 

Cockchafer,  285.  287 

Cockerbundy,  286 

Cockroaches,  291,  293;  American, 
291 ;  Common,  282 

Cocktails,  284 

Colorado  Beetle,  289 

Convolvulus  Hawk-moth.  3J4 

Corn-weevil.  288 

Crab.  272:  I'.lue.  275;  EdiMr.  274: 
I- lighting,  276;  Frcsh-uati-r.  274; 
Hermit-.  274;  Shore-,  276;  Spi- 
der-. 275 

Crane-flies.  332.  335 

Cray-fish,  274 


Cricket,     291.     294;     Field,     2'<4 : 

House-,  294;  Mole-,  294 
Crasus  Butterfly.  317 
Cypress-moth,  321.  322.  323 
Cyprian  Locust,  296 

D 

Daddy-long-legs,  302.  332,  333,  335 

Danaids.  314 

Day-flying  Moth.  324 

Death's-head  Moth.  324 

Demoiselle,  297 

Devil's  Coach-horse,   284 

Diadem-spider.  279 

Diamond-beetle,  288 

Diana   Fritillary,  312 

Dog-flea,  338 

Dor-beetle.  286 

Dragon-fly,  297;  Great,  297 

Drone.  308 

Drummer.  292 

Drury's  Goliath  Beetle.  285 

Duke  of  Burgundy  Fritillary,  316 


Earwigs.  291 

Edible  Crab.  274 

Eggars.  321 

Egyptian  Locust,  295.  296 

Elephant  Hawk-moths.  320 

Emperor-moths.  319 


False  Scorpion-.  27'' 
Field-cricket,  294 

Firstly.   2S7 

Fish-lice,  273 

Fleas.  332.  337:  Sand-.  338 

332;  I'.lack.  333:  ( ,o|,U-n- 
r\ol.  335;  Xo.  in-day.  337:  Sand-. 
333 

i  ores)  tli<-i.  337 

Fritillarios.  314 

I  roy-hoppcr.  33(1:   True.  331 

Fulvous  Itee.  310 


Gad-flies.  335 

Call-flu -.  3ii5.  332;   MarMe.  304 
Gardcii--pi<li-rs.  27'> 
Glow-worm.  2S7 


INDEX 


381 


Gnat,   332;    Buffalo,   333;    Piping, 

Golden  Apples,  289 
Golden  Butterfly,  New  Guinea,  317 
Golden-eye,  302 
Golden-eyed   Flies,  335 
Goose-barnacle,  273 
Gooseberry-moth,  322 
Gossamer-spiders,  279 
Grasshopper,  291,  294;  Cape,  294; 

Great  Green,  294;  Long-horned, 

294 

Grass-moths,  322 
Great  Green   Grasshopper,  294 
Great  Peacock-moth,  325 
Green-bottle  Fly,  337 
Green  Drake,  298 
Green-veined  White  Butterfly,  318 
Grey  Drake,  298 
Ground-beetle,  284 
Gru-gru,  288 

H 

Hair-streak,  317;  Green,  317 
Half-winged  Insects,  283,  327 
Harlequin  Beetle,  288,  289 
Harvest-men,   278 
Hawk-moth,    312,    318;    Elephant, 

320 

Hercules  Beetle.  285,  286 
Hermit-crabs,  274 
Hessian  Fly,  332 
Hive-bees.  True,  308,  309 
Hornet,  307,  308 
Hornet  Robber-fly,  333 
Horse-stinger,  297 
House-cricket,  293 
House-fly,  335 
House-spider,  278 
Hover-fly,  334 
Humble-bees,  308,  310 
Hundred-legs,  281 


Ichneumon-flies,  306,  307 
Imperial  Moth,  321 
Indian  Swallow-tailed  Moth,  326 
Insects,  283 

Jigger,  338 
Jointed  Spiders,  279 
Jumping-beetle.  288 
June  Bug,  285 
Juniper-bug,  327 


Lace-wing  Bug,  327 ;  -fly,  302 
Lace-winged  Insects.  283,  297 
Ladybird.    289;    Twenty-two-spot, 
289;  Two-spot,  289;  Seven-spot, 
289 

Lantern-flies,  330 
Larva.   Rat-tailed.  334 
Leaf-butterfly,  311 
Leaf-horned   Beetles,  285 
Leaf-insects,  Walking,  292 
Lice.     Bird-.    331;     Biting-,    331; 

True,  331 
Lobsters,  272.  274 
Locust,  291 ;  Cyprian,  296;  Egyp- 
tian.  295,  2%;   Migratory,   296; 
Red-legged,  296 ;  True,  296 
Long-horned  Grasshopper,  294 


Long-winged     Butterflies,     South 

American,  312 
Loopers,  312,  322 

M 

Magpie-moth,  322 

Mandarin-wasp,  307 

Mantis-flies,  301 

Masked  Bug,  328 

May-fly,   Common,  297 

Meal-worm,  290 

Millipede,  280,  281;  Giant,  282; 
Slimy,  282 

Mite,  276;  Cheese-,  280;  Gall-, 
280 ;  Plant-,  280 ;  Sugar-,  280 

Mole-cricket,  293,  294 

Monarch,   314 

Mosquito,  332;  Brown,  332 

Moth,  311,  318;  Atlas,  320;  Bell-, 
322;  Cecropia,  320;  Clothes-, 
323;  Convolvulus  Hawk-,  324; 
Cypress-,  321,  322,  323;  Day- 
flying,  324;  Death's-head,  324; 
Emperor-,  319;  Gooseberry,  322; 
Great  Peacock-,  325;  Indian 
Swallow-tailed,  326 ;  Magpie-, 
322;  Owl-,  321;  Pearl-,  322; 
Polyphemus.  321,  325;  Red-un- 
derwing,  322;  Snout,  322;  Ti- 
ger-, 321 ;  Twenty-plume,  323 ; 
White  Plume,  323,  326 

Mulberry-silkworm,  319 

Musk-beetle,  British,  288,  290 

N 

Nerve-winged  Insects,  283,  297 
Noon-day  Fly,  336 
Nut-weevil,  288 


Oil-beetles,  287 
Orange-tip,  317.  319 
Orb-spinners.  279 
Osier-weevil.  288 
Owl-moths,  321 


Palm-weevil,  288 
Pearl-moths,  322 
Pearl-skipper,  318 
Pentagonal  Shield-bugs,  327 
Phil-millipedes.   281 
Pine-boring  Wasp,  306 
Piping-gnat,  334 
Pium,  334 
Plant-eaters.  289 
Plant-lice,   331 
Plant-mites,  280 
Polyphemus  Moth,  321,  325 
Potato-bug,  289 
Prawns,  273 
Praying-insects,  293 
Praying-mantis,   301 
Purple  Emperor  Butterfly,  311 
Purple  Ground-beetle,  283 
Puss-moth,  311 


Queen-bee,  308 

Queen  of  Spain  Fritillary,  312 


Red  Admiral.  314 
Red-legged  Locust,  296 


Red  Spider,  280 
Red-underwing  Moth,  322 
Reed-beetles,   289 
Rhipiphorus  Beetle,  290 
Rice-weevil,  288 
Robber-fly,  336 ;  Hornet,  333 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  296 
Rose-beetle.  286 
Ruby-tailed  Flies,  306,  307 
Running-spiders,  279 


Sand-flea,  338 

Sand-flies,  334 

Satyrs,  316 

Saw-fly,  304;  Pear,  305 

Scale-insect,  331 

Scale-winged  Insects,  283,  311 

Scaly  Fins,  215 

Scarabaeus,  Egyptian,  286 

Scorpion,  276 ;  Egyptian,  277 ;  Wa- 
ter, 328;  Whip-,  278 

Scorpion  Flies,  301 

Sheath-winged  Insects,  283 

Sheep-tick,  337 

Shield-bugs,  327 

Shore-crabs,  276 

Short-horned  Grasshoppers,  296 

Shrimps,  272,  273,  274 

Silkworm,  323;  Mulberry-,  319 

Skipjack  Beetle,  286 

Skippers,  318 

Slime-heads,  215,  219 

Slimy  Millipedes.  282 

Smother-flies,  331 

Snake-flies.  301 

Snake-millipede.  Common,  281 

Snout-moth,  322 

Soldier,  298 

Solitary  Ant.  308 

Solitary  Bees,  308,  310 

Soothsayers,  291,  293 

Spanish  Fly,  287 

Spectre-insects,  293 

Spider,  276,  278;  Bird-catching, 
278;  Diadem-,  279;  Garden-, 
279;  House-,  278;  Jointed,  279; 
Red,  280;  Running-,  279;  Spot- 
ted, 280;  Spiny,  279;  Trap-door, 
278;  Tree  Trap-door,  278;  Wa- 
ter-, 279 

Spider-crab,  275 

Spotted   Spider,  280 

Stag-beetle,  285,  286 

Stalk-eyed   Beetle,  290 

Stick-insects.  291,  292 

Stink-bugs,  327 

Straight-winged   Insects,   283,   291 

Sugar-mite,  280 

Sugar-weevil,  288 

Summer  Chafer.  285 

Swallow-tailed  Butterflies,  317,319 


Tarantulas.    Spanish.   280 
Tawny  Admiral.  313.  316 
Termite,  King-,  298 ;  Queen-,  298 
Termites  at  work,  300 
Termites'   Nests.  299.  301 
Thornback.  270 
Thousand-legs,  281 
Ticks,  280 
Tiger-beetle,  283 


INDEX 


Tiger-moths,  321 
Timberman,  289 
Tope,  269 

Tortoise-beetles,  289 
Trap-door  Spiders,  278 
Tree  Trap-door  Spider,  278 
Tree-wasp,  305 
Tsetse  Fly,  337 
Turnip-flea,  288.  289 
Twenty-plume  Moth,  323 
Twcnty-two-spot  Ladybird.  289 
Two-winged  Insects,  283,  332 


Vine-aphis,  331 


W 


Walking  Leaf-insects.  292 
\Vart-eating  Grasshopper,  296 
Wasp,  304;  -beetle,  289;  Burrow- 
ing-, 307;  Mandarin-,  307;  Pine- 
boring,  306;  Social,  307;  Tree-, 
305;  True,  307;  Wood-,  305 
Water-beetle,    Black,    284;    Great 

Brown,  284 
Water-boatmen,  328 
Water-bug,  328;  Great,  329 
Water-scorpions,  328 
Water-spiders,  279 
Weevil,    287;    Corn-,    288;    Nut- 
288;    Osier-,   288;    Palm-,   288; 
Rice-,  288;  Sugar-,  288 


Whale-lice,  273 

Wheat-midges,   332 

Whip-scorpions,  278 

White  ants,  298 

White  Cabbage-butterflies,  317 

\\  liite  Plume-moth,  323,  326 

Wood-ants,  307 

Wnnd-lice,  272,  273 

Wood-wasps,  305 

Worker,  308,  309 


Yellow-shell,  322 
Yellow-underwings,  322 


SHELL-FISH,    CORALS,    SPONGES,    ETC. 


Agate-snail.  342 

\iiKrba.  370 

Anemone.  Giant,  365;  Sea-,  360; 
Strawberry-,  360 

Animalcule,  Bell-,  368;  Slipper-, 
368;  Sun-.  370 

Animalcules.  366,  367;  Ciliated, 
367 ;  Collar-bearing,  368 ;  Flagel- 
late, 370;  Root- footed,  370 

Argonaut,  342 

B 

Barnacles,  343 
Beche-de-mer.  352,  354 
Bell-animalcule,  368 
Bird's-foot,  351 
Biscuit-urchins,   352 
Brain-corals.  363 
Bristle-worms,  356 
Brittle-star,  348.  350,  351 ;  Branch- 
ing-armed, 353 


Cake-urchins,  352 

Calamaries,  342 

Chalina  Sponge,  367 

Chitons,  346 

Clams,  Giant,  343,  345 

Cockles,  345 

Collar-bearing  Animalcules,  368 

Comb- bearing  Jelly-fishes,  365 

Conches,  344 

Cones,  344 

Coral.    Mushroom,    360,    362;    of 

Commerce,     364 ;      StagVhorn, 

362.  363 
Corallines.  355 
Corals,  360;  Bleached,  363 ;  Brain-, 

363;   Flexible,   364;   Star-,  363, 

364;  Stony,  364 
Cowrie,    Money-.    344;    Panther-, 

344;  Tiger-,  344 
Cross-fish,  351 
Cup-sponges.  368 
Cushion-stars,  351 
Cuttle-fish,  341 ;  Tasmanian,  340 


Dahlia-anemone, 
Devil-fish,  341 


360 


E 
Earth-worm,  Common,  356 


Feather-star,  348,  350;  Rosy,  350 
Five-fingers,  351,  354 
Flagellate  Animalcules,  370 
Flat-worms,  356,  358 
Flexible  Corals.  364 
Forams,  369,  370 
Fresh-water  Polyp,  364 
Fresh-water  Snails.  342 
Frilled  Sponge,  366 


Garden-snails.  342 
Glass-rope  Sponge,  366 
Great    Barrier    Reef,    Australian, 
359,  361 


Harp-shells.  344 
Heart-urchins,  352 
Helmet-shells,  344 
Horse-leeches.  358 
Hydra,  Common,  364 
Hydroid  Polyps,  364 


India-rubber  Worm.  358 
Infusoria.  367 


Jelly-fishes,  360,  364;  Comb-bear- 
ing. 365 


Lace-corals,  355 
Lace-sponges,  366 
Lamp-shells.   346 
Land-snail.   342 
Leather-urchins.  35J 
Leech.    356.    358;     Horse-.    358; 
Medicinal.  358 


Lingula.  348 
Liver-flukes,  358 
Lob-worm,  357 
Lug-worm,  357 

M 

Medusas.  364 
Medusa's-head  Lily,  351 
Melon-shells,  344 
Mitres,  344 

Molluscs,  339;   Multivalve.  346 
Money-cowrie,  344 
Moss-animals.  355,  356 
Multivalve  Molluscs.  346 
Mushroom-coral.  360,  362 
Mussels,    339,    345;    Pearl-,    345; 
Pond-,  346;  River-,  346 

N 

Naked-gilled    Sea-slugs.   342 
Nautilus.    340.   342;    Paper-,   342; 

Pearly,  341.  342 
Neptune's  Cup  Sponge.  366 
Nereids,  357,  358 
Noctiluca,  368.  369 
Nummulites,  370 


Octopods,  340 
Octopus.  339,  340 
Olives.  344 

Oyster.    339.    345;     Pearl-,    345; 
Rock-,  345 


Panther-cowrie,  344 
Papcr-nautihix  342 
345 

Pearl-oyster.  345;  Ceylon.  345 
Pearls.  Queensland,  347;  Southern 

Cross,  347 
Pearly  Nautilus.  341 
Pelican's-  foot  Shell.  344 
Pholas.  34d 
Polycysts.  370 
Polyp".   Fresh-w;iter.  364 
I'oMcl-mussels,  34<> 

Sponge, 


Portuguese  Man-of-war,  3<o 


INDEX 


R 

Radiolarians,  370 
Reticulated  Sponge,  366 
River-mussels,  346 
Rock-oysters,  345 
Root-footed  Animalcules,  370 


Sand-stars,  Snake-armed,  351 
Scallops,  345,  346 
Scorpion-shell,  345 
Sea-anemones,  360 
Sea-cucumber,  348,  350,  352,  353; 

Prickly,  354 
Sea- fans,  364 
Sea-firs,  364 
Sea-lemon,  365 
Sea-mats,  355 
Sea-mouse,  357,  358 
Sea-slugs,  Naked-gilled,  342 
Sea-snail,  Tongue  of,  344 
Sea-urchins,     348;      Long-spined, 

349;    Short-spined,   348;    Thick- 

spined,  350 


Sea-worms,  358 

Shell-fish,    339 

Shell-less  Slugs,  342 

Shetland   Argus,  351 

Ship-worm,  346 

Slipper-animalcule,   368 

Slugs,  340;  Shell-less,  342 

Snails,  340;  Agate-,  342;  Fresh- 
water, 342 ;  Land-,  342 ;  Garden-, 
342 

Snake-armed  Sand-stars,  351 

Sponge,  366 ;  Chalina,  367 ;  Frilled, 
366;  Glass-rope,  366;  Lace,  366; 
Portuguese  Bird's-nest,  367;  Re- 
ticulated, 366 

Sponges,  Bath-,  366;  Cup-,  368; 
Toilet-,  366 

Squid,  341;  Giant,  342;  Tasma- 
nian,  340 

Stag's-horn  Coral,  362 

Star-corals,  363,  364 

Star-fish,  Sun,  351 

Star-fishes,  348,  350 

Stone-lilies.  350 

Stony  Corals,  364 


Strawberry-anemone,  360 
Sun-animalcule,  370 


Tape-worms,   358 
Teredo,   346 

Thorny  Woodcocks,  344 
Thread-worms,  356,  358 
Tiger-cowrie,  344 
Trepang,  352 
Trumpet-shells,  344 
Tube-worms,  356,  357,  358 


Venus's  Girdle,  365 
Volutes,  344 

W 

Whelk,  339,  343,  344;  Giant,  344 
Winkle,  344 
Worms,  356 


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